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CURRICULUM GOALS AND OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Distinguish between goals and objectives 2. Distinguish between aims of education and curriculum and curriculum goals and objectives 3. Distinguish between curriculum goals and objectives and instructional goals and objectives 4. Specify and write curriculum goals 5. Specify and write curriculum objectives Hierarchy of outcomes Following the model for curriculum improvement suggested in Chapter 5, let’s see how we have come. We have:      

Analyzed needs of students in general in society Analyzed needs of American society Reviewed aoms of education and affirmed those with which we are in agreement Written a philosophy of education Initiated a needs assessment by surveying needs of students in the community and school and by surveying needs of the community Conducted a needs assessment and identified unmet needs

All of these steps are a prelude to the next phase. They provide a framework; they set the stage. They furnish data that are vital to making curricular decisions. The planning of the curriculum is now about to begin. I chapter 6 you ancounteres the “aims of education”, “curriculum goals”, :curriculum objectives”; :instructional goals”; and “instructional objectives” as used in this text. We discussed a hierarchy of purposes of education from the broadest to the narrowest. Let’s review that hierarchy; it is essential both to this chapter on curriculu goals and objectives and to chapter 10 on instructional goals and objectives. We might chart this hierarchy as shows in figure 8-1. It sometimes seems that the educational literature is surfeited with discussions of goals and objectives. In spite of these many commentaries, I have included three chapters in this text (Chapters 6, 8, and 10) on aims, goals, and objectives for the following reasons: 1. They are essential components in a comprehensive model for curriculum improvement. 2. These various for purpose are used loosely and interchangeably in some of the literature, leading to possible confusion. 3. Some of the recommendations in the literature on the writing of goals and objectives are helpful; other recommendations seem less helpful.

Aims, Goals, and Objectives Several problems can be found if we research the literature on aims, goals, and objectives. First, aims of education are often equated with goals, and in a lexical sense, of course, they are the same. John W. Gardner in Goals for Americans was describing aims of education when he wrote: Our deepest convictions impel us to foster individual fulfillment. We wish each one to achieve the promise that is in him. We wish each one to be worthy of a free society, and capable of strengthening a free society. . . . Ultimately, education serves all of our purposes— liberty, justice, and all our other aims-- but the one it serves most directly is equality of opportunity. [The] . . . tasks of producing certain specially needed kinds of educated talent . . . should not crowd out the great basic goals of our educational system: to foster individual fulfillment and to nurture the free, rational and responsible men and women without whom our kind of society cannot endure. Our schools must prepare all young people, whatever their talents, for the serious business of being free men and women.2

In this case the problem of equating aims of education with goals is minor because Gardner communicates to the reader that he is consistently discussing broad goals or aims. The problem arises when discussions of aims, curriculum goals and objectives, and instructional goals and objectives are intermingled. There is little difficulty when a single meaning for a term is used in a single context or when an author clearly defines how he or she uses a term. That, however, does not always happen. Second, the "educational goals" and "educational objectives" are used in the profession with varying meanings. Some use these in the same way other people speak of aims of education or educational aims. Some perceive educational goals as curriculum goals and educational objectives as curriculum objectives. Some substitute educational goals for instructional goals and educational objectives for instructional objectives. Third, as we shall see in examples of school statements of goals and objectives, goals are equated with objectives, and the are used synonymously. However, if we believe what we read, there are two entities— one called goals and another, objectives— for numerous schools have prepared statements of both goals and objectives. Some writers, have used the ternis "goals" and "objectives" interchangeably. W. James Popham and Eva L. Baker, for example, wrote: "We have given considerable attention to the topic of instructional objectives because they represent one of the most important tools available to the teacher. . . . There is undoubtedly a positive relationship between a teacher's clarity of instructional goals and the quality of his teaching."3 Robert E Mager in his popular work on instructional objectives commented:

An instructor . . . must then select procedures, content, and methods that . . . measure or evaluate the student's performance according to the objectives or goals originally selected. . . . Another important reason for stating objectives sharply relates to the evaluation of the degree to which the learner is able to perform in the manner desired. . . . Unless goals are clearly and firmly fixed in the minds of both parties, tests are at best misleading.'

Two widely followed taxonomies of educational objectives bear the subtitle The Classification of Educational Goals.5 In some of the literature goals are objectives and vice versa. Fourth, some curriculum specialists do not distinguish curriculum goals and objectives from instructional goals and objectives, or they use these two sets of synonymously. If curriculum and instruction are two different entities— the position taken in this text— then curriculum goals and objectives are different from instructional goals and objectives. Only if we choose a curriculum-instruction model in which the two are mirror images can curriculum goals and objectives be identical to instructional goals and objectives. This text, however, presents the view that the two are separate but related entities. These observations are not meant to criticize the positions, definitions, or approaches of other curriculum specialists nor to hold that the definitions given in this text are the "right" or only ones. As Decker F. Walker aptly stated in an enlightened discussion of writings on curriculum: Curriculum is clearly an iffy subject. It belongs to Aristotle's "region of the many and variable" where certain knowledge is not possible, only opinion— multiple and various, more or less considered, more or less adequate, but never clearly true or false.6 Mary M. McCaslin spoke in a similar vein when she said: We all live in glass houses. None of us can afford glib dismissal of alternative conceptions any more than we can afford to be noncritical or nonreflective about our own work.?

My remarks about the differences in use of curriculum convey, as mentioned in Chapter 1, that the language of curriculum is somewhat imprecise and can lead to confusion. Curriculum specialists, unfortunately, do not agree among themselves on terminology. As a result, the practitioner who seeks to carry out curriculum development following principles established by the experts must first understand these and the contexts within which they appear. In this text I have made distinctions between curriculum goals and objectives and instructional goals and objectives in order to help practitioners facilitate the natural flow of curriculum development from general aims of education to precise instructional objectives. Specifying curriculum goals and objectives, then, is viewed as an intermediate planning step between these two poles. I will first define the curriculum goals and objectives, present some examples, and then develop some guidelines for writing them.

DEFINING GOALS AND OBJECTIVESCURRICULUMGOALS A curriculum goal is a purpose or end stated in general without criteria of achievement. Curriculum planners wish students to accomplish it as a result of exposure to segments or all of a program of a particular school or school system. For example, the following statement meets this definition of a curriculum goal: "Students will demonstrate responsible behavior as citizens of our school, community, state, nation, and world." We have already seen examples of curriculum goals in Chapter 3. The Seven Cardinal Principles— health, command of fundamental processes, worthy home hip, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character— are examples of curriculum goals, albeit in a form of shorthand. 8 The Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education could have expanded these principles into forms like the following: '  The school will promote the physical and mental health of the students.  Students will achieve a command of the fundamental processes.  A goal of the school is to foster worthy home hip. The Ten Imperative Needs of Youth, listed by the Educational Policies Commission, is a set of curriculum goals that, as noted earlier, included such statements as these: All youth need to develop salable skills. All youth need to develop and maintain good health, physical fitness, and mental health. All youth need to grow in their ability to think rationally, to express their thoughts clearly, and to read and listen with understanding.

The Educational Policies Commission pointed to four purposes or aims of education in American democracy. It identified these aims as self-realization, human relationships, economic efficiency, and civic responsibility.These purposes might be modified by a particular school or school system and turned into curricular goals, stated in a variety of ways, as follows: o The school's program provides experiences leading to self-realization. o Our school seeks to promote human relationships. o A goal of the school is development of skills of learners that will lead to their country's and their own economic efficiency. o Students will develop a sense of civic responsibility. Many variations are used for exptessing these four purposes. This chapter will later present a preferred form for writing goals and objectives. For now, these four goals are shown only as examples of substance, not of form. Aims of education can become curriculum goals when applied to a particularichoot or school system.,The distinction drawn between aims of education and curriculum goals is one of generality (or looking at it from the other end of the telescope, specificity). "To transmit the

cultural heritage" and "to overcome ignorance" are aims of all school programs. No single program or school can accomplish these extremely broad purposes. A school can, of course, contribute to transmitting the cultural heritage and to overcoming ignorance; stated with qualifications, educational aims can become curriculum goals. The epression “to contribute to the physical development of the individual”can be both an educational aim of society and a curriculum goal of a particular school system. CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES Curriculum goals are derived from a statement of philosophy, defined aims of education, anitiiSeisrnent of needs. goal's, we de -rive curricu lunAectives.-"W:e may define a curriculum objective in the folloWing A curriculum objective is a purpoSe or end stated in specific, measurable term' s. Curriculum planners wish students to accomplish it as a result of exposure to segments or all of a program of the particular school or school system. The following example of a curriculum goal has already been presented: "Students will demonstrate responsible behavior as citizens of our school, community, state, nation, and world." From that curriculum goal the following curriculum objectives are among those which could be derived:   

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During the election of student government officers, 90 percent of the student body will cast ballots. 100 percent of the students will make some kind of positive contribution to the community's clean-up, fix-up campaign. 90 percent of the students will be able to name .the candidates running for the state senate and the state assembly from their district. They will be able to identify the candidates for the principal state executive offices. They will also identify the political parties of the candidates. 90 percent of the students will be able to identify their current U.S. senators and their representative to the U.S. House of Representatives. They will also identify the political parties of these officeholders. 90 percent of the students will participate in some project that can increase international understanding, such as contributing coins to UNICEF, donating food or clothing to victims of some natural disaster abroad, writing to pen pals overseas, or taking part in other school or community projects of an international nature. Note how the curriculum objectives refine the curriculum goal. Many curriculum objectives can emanate from the same curriculum goal.

LOCUS OF CURRICULUM GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

As the statements of the Seven Cardinal Principles and the Ten Imperative Needs of Youth demonstrated, curriculum goals are infrequently written on a national basis by individuals and groups as proposals for consideration by schools throughout the country. However, curriculum objectives, as just defined, are too specific to emanate from national sources.

Curriculum goals and objectives are regularly written at the state, school-district, and individual school level with the expectation that they will be followed within the jurisdiction of each level. State pronouncements apply to all public schools in the state; school-district statements apply district-wide; and individual school specifications, school-wide. For the most part, curriculum goals and objectives developed at any level cut across disciplines. A school's statement, for example, applies generally throughout the school. It is possible, however, for grades and departments to develop curriculum goals and objectives that do not apply generally throughout the school but to a particular group of students— that is, those within a particular grade or subject area. Let us suppose, by way of example, that the following statement is a curriculum goal of the school: "All children need to develop skill in working with numbers." The fourth-grade teachers could create a grade level goal by simply reiterating the school goal as `‘Fourth-graders need to develop skill in working with numbers." On the other hand, the fourth-grade teachers might choose to interpret the school's curriculum goal and create a grade level curriculum objective, as follows: "This year's fourth-graders will excel last year's by an average of five percentile points on the same standardized test of arithmetic." Another example of a school-wide curriculum goal is "Students will improve their scores on state assessment tests." One of the school's curriculum objectives derived from this goal might be "At least 85 percent of the students will achieve ing scores on the statewide assessment tests." The eleventh-grade faculty might set as its objective: "90 percent of the juniors will the state assessment test this year." We encounter a similar case with a twelfth-grade faculty when the school seeks to accomplish the following curriculum goal: "Students will develop self-discipline and self-reliance." A twelfthgrade faculty might spell out the following curriculum goal: "Seniors will demonstrate skills of independent study." The twelfth-grade teachers might be more specific by following up this curriculum goal with a curriculum objective, as follows: "At least 70 percent of the seniors will seek to improve their self-discipline, self-reliance, and self-study techniques by engaging in independent research projects at least one hour of the school day three hours a week." Teachers of foreign language may furnish us with an example of curriculum goals and objectives found within a discipline. They might, for example, consider the school's curriculum goal: "Students will develop the ability to relate to ethnic and national groups different from their own." The foreign language teachers might also note one of the school's curriculum objectives, in this case applying to all the students in general but aimed at a particular field: "75 percent of the student body will elect a foreign language." The foreign language teachers might decide on the following curriculum goal: "Students will initiate a number of requests for advanced courses in a foreign language." They might identify as a curriculum objective: "50 percent of the students who are taking or who have taken a foreign language will enroll in a second foreign language." In all cases, the grade or departmental level's and the school's curriculum goals and objectives must relate to one another. In the same manner, a school's curriculum goals and objectives must be compatible with the district's, and both an individual school's and the district's curriculum goals and objectives must be coordinated with those of the state.

STATE CURRICULUM GOALS AND OBJECTIVES The state, through either its board or department of education, may exert curriculum leadership by promulgating a statement of curriculum goals and in some cases, curriculum objectives for all its schools. The state of Florida, for example, has identified seven goals of education and one major curriculum objective, as shown in Box 8-1. Goal 1 is a curriculum goal primarily for the public schools. Goals 2 through 5 are curriculum goals for both the public school and postsecondary levels. Goal 6 is more of an istrative goal, although it has curricular implications. Goal 7 is both an istrative and curricular goal. Florida's aim to raise educational attainment of its students in the public schools to the upper quartile of states within five years can be termed a curriculum objective for the entire state. In an earlier document the state of Florida offered some useful advice on how to conceptualize educational. goals: The goals of education can be conceived in of the life activities of human adults in modern society. These activities may generally be placed in three categories: occupational, citizenship, and self-fulfillment. By constructing such a framework, it becomes possible to state the kinds of performance which should equip adults to function effectively in society— the objectives of education.0 The foregoing quotation recalls the method described in Chapter 7 of analyzing society's needs by spelling out social processes, functions, or life activities. This same document helped curriculum planners by summarizing the characteristics of goals as follows: 1. Goals are statements of ultimate desired outcomes; they specify conditions desired for the population in general. 2. Goals are timeless, in the sense that no time is specified by which the goals must be reached. 3. Goals do not specify criteria for achievement, but provide a direction for system improvement. 4. Goals are not permanent. from the entire evaluation/decisionmaking process is used to assess progress in the direction specified by the goals, and goals may be modified wherever necessary or desirable. 5. Goals are of equal importatice. 6. Goals are stated broadly enough to be accepted at any level of the educational enterprise: state, district, or local school. They thus represent the conceptual framework upon which the education enterprise depends.13

Box 8-1 FLORIDA'S GOALS OF EDUCATION 1.

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Basic Skills. All Floridians must have every opportunity, including remedial education, to master the basic skills for communication and computation (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and arithmetic). Basic skills are fundamental to success and mastery shall be developed through basic programs in the following areas of learning: language arts, mathematics, problem solving, art, music, physical education, science, and social studies. General Education. All Floridians shall have the opportunity to acquire the general education fundamental to career and personal development and necessary for participation in a democratic society, including an emphasis on the arts. This includes skills, attitudes and knowledge for general problem solving and survival, human relations and citizenship, moral and ethical conduct, mental and physical health, aesthetic, scientific and cultural appreciation, and environmental and economic understanding. Vocational Competencies. All Floridians shall have the opportunity to master vocational competencies necessary for entry level employment by the time they leave full-time education. For persons who continue formal education through advanced or professional programs, vocational competencies will be in areas of professional employment, including the arts. Vocational education shall be continuously reviewed to assure that Florida's needs for workers are met and that individuals can secure further training needed for career advancement. Professional Competencies. Floridians with demonstrated interest, academic background, and aptitude shall have the opportunity to acquire professional competencies necessary for employment in a profession and to update their competencies periodically. Programs of professional studies, including the arts, shall be organized to assure that Florida's and society's needs for professionals are met. Advanced Knowledge and Skills. Floridians with demonstrated interest, academic background, and aptitude shall have the opportunity to acquire advanced knowledge and skills in the academic disciplines or other specialized fields of study and to update their knowledge and skills periodically. Programs of advanced academic training shall be organized to meet Florida's and society's needs for highly trained specialists. Research and Development. The public education network shall seek solutions to local, regional, state, and national problems through organized research and development. Research and development shall be organized to solve pressing problems and to expand the store of knowledge in all areas of hum6 endeavor, including education. Recreation and Leisure Skills. Floridians shall have the opportunity to pursue recreation and leisure skills which satisfy the recreational and cultural needs of individuals in areas outside of general education. On a statewide average, educational achievement in the State of Florida will equal that of the upper quartile of states within five years, as indicated by commonly accepted criteria of attainment. (S B E 1/20/81)

The Florida document on educational goals commented: "While it is necessary to know current status in order to specify educational needs and to assign priorities for satisfaction of these needs, the statements of desired outcomes are logically a prerequisite to establishing needs.14 In Chapter 7, I made the following comment on timing of needs assessment and goal specification: "A needs assessment is a continuing activity that takes place (a) before specification of curricular goals and objectives, (b) after identification of curricular goals and objectives, (c) after evaluation of instruction, and (d) after evaluation of the curriculum."15 To clarify the sequence of goal writing and needs assessment, we may refer to Figure 8-2. Once curriculum goals and objectives have been spelled out, the needs assessment process proceeds to determine unmet needs. Once identified, these needs will result in the creation of more curriculum goals and objectives or a modification of those already specified. In summary, a state may formulate both broad aims and curriculum goals (and also in some cases curriculum objectives, instructional goals, and instructional objectives as well) for all schools and all students in that state. Diagram figure 8-2 belum dibuat SCHOOL-DISTRICT CURRICULUM GOALS AND OBJECTIVES in practice, school districts and individual schools may accept the state's formulation of goals and objectives verbatim or if the state permits, may independently develop their own statements. In either case, however, the statements of the school districts and individual schools must be in harmony with the state's. Let's examine the statement of goals of the Dade County Public Schools, a large urban school district with a multiethnic population. Borrowed from an earlier pronouncement of the state of Florida and amended slightly by16the school district, this statement, "Goals for Student Development," is shown in Box 8-2. The statement, which appeared in an earlier edition of Dade County's District Comprehensive Educational Plan, is still retained in the district's board policies. In a more recent comprehensive plan, the Dade County public schools focused on a particular curriculum goal with four subgoals, as follows: Prepare students for their life's work by providing germane curricula; methods by which students can address the basic issues of their own lives and interpersonal relationships; by rewarding creativity; and by instilling motivation for excellence. o Provide all students with the opportunity and encouragement to become bilingual, including special help for those students whose native language is not English. o Improve students' thinking skills including, but not limited to, analysis, reasoning, and logic. o Provide students those computer experiences and skills needed to function in a technical age. o Provide a free and appropriate education to each handicapped student, directly utilizing school system programs and personnel when possible.°

INDIVIDUAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM GOALS AND OBJECTIVES Not only do the states and school districts establish curriculum goals and objectives, but the individual schools also enter into the process by specifying their own goals and objectives. Box 8-3 (Philosophy and Goals of Lafayette Middle School) furnishes an example of a middle school's statement of both its philosophy and goals. In order to show the relationships between the state's, the school district's, and the individual school's statements of goals and objectives, I have reproduced in Box 8-4 the statement of philosophy and objectives (which in the context of this chapter would be called goals) of Miami Palmetto Senior High School, which is in the same school district cited earlier in this chapter (Dade County). The School Improvement Plan of the Hephzibah Middle School (Georgia) demonstrates how a school takes a curriculum goal of the school district and from it specifies its own curriculum objectives. One of the district's goals and the school's objectives derived from it are as follows: System Goal: To increase student mastery of academic skills as evidenced by improved test scores. Objectives: o To exceed the state scores on the Criterion-Referenced Test for all objectives for both reading and mathematics and to have 80% of all students at grade level for the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. o To implement the new reading series throughout the school. o To increase the number of students participating in the curriculum fair, science fair, literary fairs. o To increase student use of the media center and to improve students' media and research skills (as outlined by the state's Quality Basic Education Act).18 Although the illustrations of curriculum goals and objectives cited in this chapter follow different formats, they serve as examples of the step in the planning process that calls for specification of curriculum goals and objectives. Box 8-2 GOALS FOR STUDENT DEVELOPMENT Goal Area I: Communication and Learning Skills. Students shall acquire, to the extent of their individual physical, mental, and emotional capacities, a mastery of the basic skills required in obtaining and expressing ideas through the effective use of words, numerals, and other symbols.

a)

Students shall achieve a working knowledge of reading, writing, speaking, and arithmetic during the elementary school years, accompanied by gradual progress into the broader fields of mathematics, natural science, language arts, and the humanities.

Students shall develop and use skills in the logical processes of search, analysis, evaluation and problem-solving, in critical thinking, and in the use of symbolism. c) Students shall develop competence and motivation for continuing self-evaluation, selfinstruction, and adaptation to a changing environment. d) Students shall have the opportunity during the elementary school years to develop and use the skills of speaking and understanding a foreign language in order to communicate effectively in the language for future personal or vocational achievements. b)

Goal Area II: Citizenship Education. Students shall acquire and continually improve the habits and attitudes necessary for responsible citizenship. Students shall acquire knowledge of various political systems with emphasis on democratic institutions, the heritage of the United States, the contributions of our diverse cultural backgrounds, and the responsibilities and privileges of citizenship. b) Students shall develop the skills required for participation in the political processes of our country and for influencing decisions made by political organizations. c) Students shall develop the competence and desire to become informed and critical participants in the electoral process of this county. d) Students shall acquire those attributes necessary for functioning, on a daily basis, as good citizens in their own school and community settings. a)

Goal Area III: Career and Occupational Education. Students shall acquire a knowledge and understanding of the opportunities open to them for preparing for a productive life, and shall develop those skills and abilities which will enable them to take full advantage of those opportunities— including a positive attitude toward work and respect for the dignity of all honorable occupations. a) Students shall acquire knowledge of and develop an understanding of the fundamental structure and processes of America's economic system, together with an understanding of the opportunities and requirements for individual participation and success in this changing system. b) Students shall develop occupational competencies, consistent with their interests, aptitudes, and abilities, which are necessary for entry and advancement in the economic system; they shall develop those academic competencies necessary for the acquisition of technical or professional skills through post–high school training. c) Students shall develop competence in the application of economic knowledge to practical economic functions: such as, planning and budgeting for the investment of personal income, calculating tax obligations, financing major purchases, and obtaining desirable employment.

d) Students shall develop an awareness of the relevance of the curriculum to the world of work and our social existence. Goal Area IV: Mental and Physical Health. Students shall acquire good health habits and an understanding of the conditions necessary for the maintenance of physical, emotional, and social well-being. Students shall develop an understanding of the requirements of personal hygiene, adequate nutrition and leisure time activities essential to the maintenance of physical health, and a knowledge of the dangers to mental and physical health from addiction and other aversive practices. b) Students shall develop skills in sports and other forms of recreation which will provide for life-long enjoyment of participation according to their own preferences and abilities. c) Students shall develop competence in recognizing and preventing environmental health problems. d) Students shall acquire a knowledge of basic psychological and sociological factors affecting human behavior and mental health, and shall develop competence for adjusting to changes in personal status and social patterns. a)

Goal Area V: Home and Family Relationships. Students shall develop an appreciation of the family as a social institution. Students shall develop an understanding of their roles and the roles of others as of a family, together with a knowledge of the requirements for successful participation in family living. b) Students shall develop an understanding of the role of the family as a basic unit in the society. c) Students shall develop an awareness of the diversity of family patterns and the value of the contributions of the individuals to family and community living. a)

Goal Area VI: Aesthetic and Cultural Appreciations. Students shall develop understanding and appreciation of human achievement in the natural sciences, the humanities and the arts. Students shall acquire a knowledge of and an appreciation for major arts, music, literary, and drama forms, and their place in the cultural heritage. b) Students shall acquire a knowledge of the natural, physical and social sciences and their relationships to human and social development. c) Students shall develop skills for creative use of leisure time and shall develop an interest in becoming active in one or more areas of creative endeavor. d) Students shall develop discrimination skills in the critical evaluation of cultural offerings and opportunities. a)

Goal Area VII: Human Relations. Students shall develop a concern for moral, ethical, and spiritual values and for the application of such values to life situations. Students shall acquire the greatest possible understanding and appreciation of themselves as well as of persons belonging to social, cultural, and ethnic groups different from their own, and of the worthiness of all persons as of society. b) Students shall develop those skills and attitudes necessary for positive interpersonal and group relationship and shall recognize the importance of and need for ethical and moral standards of behavior. c) Students shall recognize the value of that level of group discipline and self-discipline that promotes a sense of worth of the individual while contributing to the collective benefit of all involved. a)

CONSTRUCTING STATEMENTS OF CURRICULUM GOALS The examples of curriculum goals suggest a variety of forms of expression. Some schools phrase their goals in a way that stresses the role of the curriculum or of the school, like the following examples:   

To teach students to express themselves clearly and correctly in written and oral English. To develop the students' abilities to purchase goods and services wisely. To expose students to cultures other than their own. Although an expression that stresses the role of the school is common, an alternate form that focuses on the student seems preferable for a number of reasons: Philosophically, this form is more in keeping with progressive doctrine that places the pupil at the center of learning— a sound principle. 2. It is in keeping with modem instructional design that focuses on the achievements of the learner rather than the performance of the teacher or school. 3. It parallels common practice, as we shall see in Chapter 10, in writing instructional goals and objectives. Thus curriculum goals may be better understood and the process of curriculum development better integrated. 4. It is easier to design evaluation processes when we know what is expected of students as opposed to what is expected of the teacher or school. Writing curriculum goals in a form that starts with the students, we might revise the previous illustrations in the following manner: 1.

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Students will express themselves clearly and correctly in written and oral English. Students will demonstrate the ability to purchase goods and services wisely. Students will show interest in and understanding of cultures other than their own.

Characteristics of Curriculum Goals

The characteristics of curriculum goals as conceptualized in this text may be summarized as follows: 1. They relate to the educational aims and philosophy. 2. They are programmatic. Although they speak to one or more areas of the curriculum, they do not delineate specific courses or specific items of content. 3. They refer to the accomplishment of groups (all students, students in general, most students) rather than the achievement of individual students. 4. They are stated in general that provide directions for curriculum development. 5. They are broad enough to lead to specific curriculum objectives. CONSTRUCTING STATEMENTS OF CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES Like curriculum goals, curriculum objectives relate to the educational aims and philosophy, are programmatic in nature, and refer to accomplishments of groups. Unlike curriculum goals, curriculum objectives are stated in specific and measurable . Box 8-3 PHILOSOPHY AND GOALS OF LAFAYETTE MIDDLE SCHOOL The middle school is an organization designed to answer the needs of boys and girls in their pre- and early adolescent years, who through common physiological changes and through common interests typical to these years form a homogeneous unit in the community. By the grouping together of students of common age and with common interests, the middle school provides better opportunities for meeting the needs of this age group. The school must provide an appropriate balance among opportunities for emotional, intellectual, and social aspects of growth of the students. This aim should be achieved by emphasis upon the following goals: 1. Provide opportunities for intellectual growth toward eventual mastery of skills and abilities. Skill in the application of such fundamental tools of knowledge as reading, writing, and arithmetic is necessary to enable each pupil to go beyond his knowledge and to meet the needs of life situations. Because of the extremely uneven development in these skill areas, pupils must be allowed to progress at their own optimal rates. 2. Help all students to gain the fundamental background, concepts, and understanding of the various subject matter areas. An emphasis on unique modes of inquiry and teaching of basic structural elements, rather than on the fragmented learning of facts, can help bring order and depth of understanding to the learner. 3. Give as many opportunities as possible for the exploration of interests and abilities.

Exploration as a concept derives from the purposes of initiative of the individual pupil rather than from the purposes of society. As such, it is crucial among the educational purpose of the middle school. 4. Provide through these investigations of unique needs, desires, and purposes a basis upon which students, with their parents, will be enabled to make wiser choices in the educational and vocational offerings of their later educational experiences. 5. Provide opportunities for healthful living, both mental and physical. The possession of mental resources for the use of leisure, the appreciation of beauty, the skillful maintenance of a healthful home and community, and the ability to function both as a participant and a spectator in many sports and pastimes are valid goals for all courses. 6. Provide opportunities for development, understanding, and appreciation of the democratic way of living. Educational practices that show a concern for the orderly structure of society, as well as for the individual, can strengthen loyalty to democratic ideals. Furthermore, giving students experience in management of their own school activities and helping them to strengthen their study skills will enable them to adjust more readily to the independence required by the high school program. 7. Throughout this program, continue to make available an effective counseling service which will aid pupils in their educational, social, and occupational problems. SOURCE: Lafayette Middle School, Lafayette, Louisiana. Reprinted with permission. CHARACTERISTICS OF CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES Curriculum objectives are refinements of the curriculum goals. They specify the performance standards for the students for whom the curriculum is designed. We can turn a curriculum goal into a curriculum objective by adding the following three elements, which we will see again when discussing instructional objectives: 

performance or behavioral — that is, those skills and knowledge that students are expected to be able to demonstrate  the degree of mastery desired by the curriculum planners  conditions under which the performance will take place, if not readily understood Let's analyze the following curriculum objective for these three elements: "On completion of the first testing, 75 percent of the eleventh graders will have successfully ed the state's minimal competencies test; by corn- pletion of the second testing, 90 percent will have ed." Are all three elements present in this two-part objective? Yes, they area The performance expected is successfully ing the state's minimal competencies test. The degrees of mastery desired are 75 and 90 percent. Completion of the first and second testings is the condition.

To accomplish the transition from curriculum goal to curriculum objective, you may find it helpful to jot down several indicators of student performance that will serve as guides for writing the objectives. Let's take another look at the illustrative curriculum goal mentioned earlier: "Students shall demonstrate responsible behavior as citizens of our school, community, state, nation, and world." What are some indicators of learner performance that would reveal evidence of students' accomplishment of this goal? We might look for such behaviors as the following:    

care of school building and grounds less fighting among students orderliness in school assemblies participation in community youth organizations such as church groups, scout groups, and the like  contribution of labor or money to some worthy cause  keeping informed on current events  refraining from littering the school and community  serving on commities of the school  observing highway speed limits  taking an interest in local, state and national elections  engaging in discussions on ways to reduce international tensions

box 8-4 PHILOSOPHY AND OBJECTIVES OF THE MIAMI PALMETTO SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Miami Palmetto Senior High School provides opportunities for all students to become mature, thinking, skilled young people, well equipped for education, career, personal, and life-long growth. The staff seeks to create an atmosphere conducive to the learning process and one which enables students to develop a positive self-image. These factors combine to enable students to develop as responsible citizens. As educators, we are committed to the following philosophical principles: 1. 2.

To foster a knowledge of self and of the world in which the individual lives. To encourage understanding and respect for the rights of others.

To stimulate critical, constructive, and creative thinking. 4. To assist in the development of a set of values meaningful to the individual and worthwhile to society. 5. To assist in the development of functional skills necessary for an individual to be a contributing member of society. 6. To provide experiences which will enrich career education and career choices. 7. To provide a positive and challenging experience for all students. In order to fulfill the previous statements, the faculty seeks to meet the objectives stated below: 3.

1.

To offer a flexible curriculum ranging from instruction in basic through college-level courses.

2.

3.

To instruct students in learning processes which will provide them with methods of inquiry applicable to the future, as well as present, learning situations. To encourage students to practice courtesy, friendliness, and cooperation as a way of life.

To motivate students in the development and maintenance of sound mental, emotional, and physical health. 5. To provide experiences which will enable students to develop an appreciation and an understanding of their own culture as well as the culture of others. 6. To provide students with instruction and materials which are appropriate to their ability and maturity level. 7. To guide students to think logically and creatively, to express ideas clearly in speaking and writing, and to listen and view critically. 8. To help students learn to discuss and to see the relationship between cause and effect. 9. To enable students to distinguish facts from unstated opinions, conclusions, and inferences. 10. To strengthen pupils' computational skills and to provide for those who operate at the concept level in mathematics. 11. To provide all students instruction in reading skills. 12. To encourage students to read widely both for their own intellectual growth and for their own enjoyment. 13. To assist students in the discovery of scientific principles through the study of factual and experimental evidence. 14. To help students acquire an understanding of the principles and processes of the American free-enterpriie system. 15. To involve students in school and community resources. 16. To promote in students an appreciation and understanding of those factors conducive to successful family living. 17. To orient students in the effective use of print and nonprint materials in the Media Center. 18. To provide opportunities for interested students to develop manual skills. 19. To provide students with vocational information and the opportunity to develop occupational skills. 20. To provide students with co-curricular activities which will develop interest, cooperativeness, pride, and satisfaction. 21. To foster a positive educational experience for the potential dropout. 22. To encourage female students to enroll in high level math and science courses. 23. To encourage minority students with potential to enroll in courses which will challenge their abilities. 24. To encourage students to maximize their potential by enrolling in courses which will challenge them. 4.

SOURCE: Miami Palmetto Senior High School, Miami, Florida. Reprinted with permission. We could turn the first performance indicator— care of school building and grounds— into a curriculum objective in the following manner: "By the end of April students will have demonstrated care of the building to the extent that there will be a 95 percent reduction in the number of graffiti on the walls." From this one curriculum goal on good citizenship we can generate many curriculum objectives, and from the first performance indicator alone we can create a number of objectives. The generation of curriculum goals and objectives is a highly creative exercise. The curriculum goals and objectives set the direction for the subsequent organization and development of the curriculum. The curriculum goals and objectives determine the activities that will take place in the many classrooms of the school. VALIDATING AND DETERMINING PRIORITY OF GOALS AND OBJECTIVES As stated earlier, the assessment of curriculum needs is a continuing process that starts after a school formulates its philosophy and clarifies its aims of education. The needs of society, of students in general, and of the particular students, community, and subject matter give rise to initial statements of curriculum goals and objectives. After these goals and objectives have been identified, the needs assessment process is continued to determine if any needs have not been met. When unmet needs are exposed, a revised list of curriculum goals and objectives is prepared. These goals and objectives require validation and placing in order of priority. Validation is the process of determining whether the goals and objectives are accepted as appropriate or "right" for the school system proposing them. Determining priority is the placing of the goals and objectives in order of relative importance in the school system. Groups concerned with the progress of the school should be enlisted to help identify suitable goals and objectives and to set priorities. Some school systems seek to validate both goals and objectives; others limit the process to validating goals on the presumption that once the goals are identified, a representative committee can handle the task of making the goals specific— that is, turning them into objectives. Function of Curriculum Committee The validation process, whether carried out by the state, district, or school, assumes the formation of a curriculum committee or council charged with the task. The curriculum committee will submit the goals by means of a questionnaire or opinionnaire to groups who are concerned with the progress of the school(s). Submitting curriculum goals and any already identified curriculum objectives to a broad sampling of groups— lay persons (including parents), stu- dents, teachers, s, and

curriculum experts (on the staffs of public school systems or on the faculties of teacher education institutions)— is good practice. The effort should be made to learn whether there is widespread acceptance of the goals formulated by the curriculum planners and what the groups' priorities will be. Curriculum objectives that are developed after a broad sampling of opinion has been gathered can be submitted to either a more limited sampling of the same groups or to the curriculum committee for validation and ranking. Data should be gathered and interpreted, preferably by a curriculum committee representative of the various groups polled. Such a committee will be called on to make judgments that will tax its collective wisdom. It cannot treat the data in a simplistic fashion, tallying responses from all groups, and simply following the majority's opinions. It needs to analyze discrepancies of opinion, if any, among the various groups surveyed and discuss the discrepancies among themselves and with of the various groups. Weighting Opinions. As a general rule, the wishes of students, for example, should not hold the same priority as the beliefs of parents and other lay people. The opinions of groups small in number, like curriculum specialists or college professors, cannot be treated in the same light as the attitudes of large numbers of residents of the community. For that matter, the opinions of a few school s should not be given, simply because of their status, as great a weight as those of large numbers of teachers and parents. Since the committee interpreting the data may not find consensus on goals and objectives among the various groups, it has the heavy responsibility of reconciling differing positions and reaching consensus among its own . Drawing on the opinions of the groups that have been polled, the curriculum committee must decide which goals are valid and which should be assigned priority. To set priorities is to say that some goals are more important than others and deserve more time, attention, and emphasis in the curriculum. It is clear that the goals of a state, district, or school should be submitted for validation and ranking by sizable numbers of educators and noneducators. It is debatable, however, whether curriculum goals and objectives of grades or departments need or should be submitted to persons beyond the school or school-district personnel. It would be somewhat impractical, redundant, expensive, and time-consuming for curriculum goals and objectives of the grades and departments to be submitted to significant numbers of the school system's constituents. The faculties of the grade and departmental levels may satisfy their responsibilities for validation and ranking of goals and objectives by submitting their statements to the curriculum committee and to experts in the field for review and endorsement. The process of validation and determining priorities may be repeated as often as the curriculum committee finds necessary, with modifications and repeated ranking made as a result of each survey and prior to a subsequent survey. After the curriculum goals and objectives have been validated and placed in rank order, the curriculum planners turn to the next phase in the curriculum development process— putting the goals and objectives into operation.

SUMMARY State school systems, school districts, and individual schools engage in the task of specifying curriculum goals and objectives. Curriculum goals and objectives are derived from the developers' philosophy and educational aims. Curriculum goals are programmatic statements of expected outcomes without criteria of achievement. They apply to students as a group and are often interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary. Curriculum objectives are specific, measurable, programmatic statements of outcomes to be achieved by students as a group in the school or school system. Curriculum goals and objectives are essential for 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

conducting a complete needs assessment to identify unmet needs carrying out subsequent phases of the suggested model for curriculum improvement generating instructional goals and objectives providing a basis for evaluating the curriculum giving direction to the program

It is recommended that curriculum goals and objectives be phrased in of anticipated accomplishments of students. Curriculum objectives, which are more specific than curriculum goals, should stipulate expected degrees of mastery and the conditions under which students can master the desired behaviors. Curriculum goals and objectives should be validated and put in order of priority by the school's curriculum committee after review by representatives of the various constituencies that the school serves.