Writing Guide s40j

Writing at UChicago – The Little Red Schoolhouse method 

We care about good writing: You know good writing when you see it. To describe exactly what makes it good, however, can be more of a challenge.



Acquire LRS vocabulary to produce better writing: The LRS method helps you develop a vocabulary to use when you evaluate writing. This vocabulary makes it easier to articulate what a particular writer does well and what that writer does poorly. When you are more aware of what exactly makes for good writing, you put yourself in a position to produce better writing yourself.



Identify who you want to persuade: In academic and professional writing, we usually write to persuade our readers to adopt a particular point of view. To have any chance of persuading your readers, you must effectively communicate what you intended to communicate to them. In order to do effectively communicate, you must know who exactly you intend to persuade. You must know your audience.

 Know your reader: When you write, you write for an audience, for a particular set of readers. As writers, you must identify those readers. Who are they? What do they know? What do they care about? Knowing your readers puts you in a position to understand what they are likely to expect from your writing, and to effectively anticipate and respond to the kinds of questions they are likely to ask about your writing. 

An example: Your readers are inhabitants of a nursing home. You want to persuade them to stop paying for an over-priced cable service, and instead, to subscribe to Netflix and Amazon Prime. How are you likely to persuade them to adopt your viewpoint? First, you will need to understand the preferences and priorities of these inhabitants. What are their attitudes toward cost? What TV shows do they watch? Are they familiar with Netflix and Amazon Prime, and if not, are they likely to want to become familiar with these different service providers? Your answers to such questions and others will help you figure out how to craft your writing.



Questions to ask about your reader:  Who will read my writing? – Experts? Well-informed non-experts? Ill-informed non-experts?





What do they know about my subject or the problem I address in my writing? – Do they already have a special interest in it? Is the problem I address one they recognize or one they share with me? Will I need to convince them to take the problem seriously?



How will these readers respond to the solution/answer I offer in response to the problem or subject I discuss? – Will they have in mind an alterative solution? What objections to my solution might they raise?

Embrace the art of editing: While you draft a paper, you are constantly thinking and refining your ideas. In fact, some of your ideas may only become clear after you have drafted. All writing is provisional. When you edit, you give yourself the opportunity to work towards clearer and more coherent writing.

Prepared by Nicole Beckmann Tessel in 2016 for the Graham School at the University of Chicago. Based on lector training materials received from the Writing Program at the University of Chicago; Joseph M. Williams and Gregory G. Colomb’s Style: Toward Clarity and Grace; and Wayne C. Booth, Joseph M. Williams, and Gregory G. Colomb’s The Craft of Research. KEY : CHARACTERS and ACTIONS, NOMINALIZATIONS, SUBJECT and VERB CORES 

Make reading your writing easy: A sentence can be long or short. Length does not matter. What matters is how easy you make it for your reader to get from the beginning of the sentence to its end.



Think about characters and actions as essential elements of your writing: Stories are largely composed of characters and the actions of those characters. The same is true of academic writing. - Grammatically, every sentence has a subject and a verb. - Functionally, every sentence has a character and an action. How can you make it easy to identify the character and action of a sentence?



Locate the character in the subject: The character is the source of action in a sentence. It may be singular (example: a dog) or collective (example: pets). Readers tend to look for characters in the subject.



Locate the action in the verb: The action may be movement, a mental process, a feeling, etc. Typically, action words are ones that could end in –ing. Readers tend to look for actions in verbs.



Avoid unnecessary nominalizations: Readers tend to look for characters and actions in order to make sense of writing. And they look for characters in the subject and actions in the verb. When you nominalize actions, rather than put them in the verb, you may confuse your reader. - Nominalization – It is a noun derived from a verb or an adjective. (example: compete [verb] -> competition [nominalization]) - When a nominalization follows a verb, check whether that verb adds valuable information to the sentence. If it doesn’t, get rid of the verb and change the nominalization into a new verb. (example: The swimmers engaged in a competition this weekend. ---> The swimmers competed this weekend.) - When a nominalization is the subject of a verb, check whether that verb adds valuable information to the sentence. If it doesn’t, get rid of the verb and create a new subject. (example: There is a need for more careful collection of this economic data. ---> Economists must collect this data more carefully.) - When several nominalizations are strung together, get rid of the first one by changing it into a verb and finding a new subject. (example: What was done then was a presentation of the effects of the drug. ---> Then, the researchers presented the effects of the drug.)s



Create subject + verb cores: Sentences are easier to understand when the subject and the verb are put close together in a sentence. So, characters and their actions should be located close together in a sentence.

(example: 1. Overworked and underpaid, the worker (subject) described in the case addressed at length in the journal article assigned last week, may find (verb) that he is too tied up to visit us in class tomorrow. 2. The journal article assigned last week addressed the case of a particular overworked and underpaid worker. That worker may find (subject + verb core) that he is too tied up to visit us in class tomorrow. The second example is clearer than the first, because the subject and verb were placed close together.) KEY : NEW INFORMATION and OLD INFORMATION 

Informing your readers is a central objective: In your writing, you seek to tell your readers something they did not already know.



You inform your readers when:  You provide details and specifics, rather than general and vague statements.  Your readers do not already know those details and specifics you provide. In other words, you inform when you provide NEW INFORMATION that is detailed and specific.  Your readers are able to UNDERSTAND that NEW INFORMATION.  You provide familiar details and specifics, so that your readers can understand any NEW INFORMATION provided. In other words, you provide OLD INFORMATION, too.



You help your readers understand NEW INFORMATION when:  You put OLD INFORMATION at the beginning of every sentence, before NEW INFORMATION.  Your OLD INFORMATION is simple, so that the NEW INFORMATION can be complex. (example: In the pages that follow, I will offer a brief of the late Krusty the Clown’s illustrious career. The famous clown is best known for his show, The Krusty the Clown Show, which aired in Springfield on Channel 6 for roughly two decades. During that time, the show sustained tremendous popularity with children across Springfield. Krusty dedicated most of his time to performances on the nightly show, but amassed a fortune licensing his name and image to a number of companies.

In the sentences above, you will notice that new information from one sentence is repeated at the beginning of the subsequent sentence.) 

OLD INFORMATION is:  Relatively familiar to your reader. It may be information that the reader knew before reading your text. It may also be new information that they read earlier in your text, which has now become familiar to them.  Old information is shorter in length than new information. (example: Can you make sense of this sentence? Maiden voyage. 41.726931 deg. N, -49.948253 deg. W. Atlantic. There’s a good chance that you couldn’t. The information is unfamiliar and presented without any context. Can you understand the edited sentence? On its Maiden voyage, the Titanic sunk in the Atlantic Ocean at 41.726931 degrees North and -49.948253 degrees West.)

KEY : CONJUNCTIONS, ORIENTORS, TOPIC and STRESS 

You may write a series of clear sentences, but find that when read together they confuse your reader. To make sure that a series of clear sentences is easy to follow, you need to manage the flow of information both within and across those sentences. Each sentence in a series should reflect the a consistent message, one that fits within the broader context of your paper.



Tips   



Types of orientors:  Ones that help readers evaluate subsequent information. (examples: unfortunately, it is important to note, perhaps, apparently, remarkably, etc.)

to manage the flow of information: Put old information at the beginning of the sentence. Put new information at the end of the sentence. Use conjunctions to connect one sentence to another. (examples: though, if…then, that, yet, etc.)  Use orientors to orient readers.  Announce the topic at the beginning of the sentence.  Put information that you want to stress at the end of the sentence.





Ones that point to a time or place. (examples: earlier, On September 20th, in China, etc.)



Ones that announce the concept we intend to write about. (examples: I will talk about A; the subsequent discussion, which is focused on B)

About topics:  They are the ideas and concepts located toward the beginning of a sentence, which define for your readers what that sentence is about.  A topic is not always located in the grammatical subject. But the topic is clearest when it is located in the grammatical subject.  A topic is often a noun phrase. (example: Regarding the proposed regulations (topic), it (grammatical subject) is hardly evident how the istration will respond. In the example above, you will note that the topic is different from the grammatical subject. The sentence is not about “it”; the sentence is about “proposed regulations”.)



Create coherence through topic strings: When a series of sentences articulate the same few topics, those topics form a topic string. A topic string is relatively easy for a reader to follow, because it feels focused and cohesive.



The beginning of each sentence is key: It should present old information or information familiar to your reader. This old information should be in the topic position. The topic should have a character, which is usually located in the grammatical subject.



The end of each sentence is also important: More complex, new information should be put toward the end of a sentence. The end is also where the stress is located.



Managing the end of a sentence:  Trim unnecessary words from the end, so that only important information remains.  Move less important information toward the beginning of the sentence. Move more important information to the end.  Avoid putting the most important information in the middle of the sentence.



REVIEW: “By now, we begin to appreciate the extraordinary complexity of an ordinary English sentence. A sentence is more than its subject, verb, and object. It is more than the sum of its words and parts. It is a system of systems whose parts we can fit together in very delicate ways to achieve very delicate ends – if we know how.” (Williams, Style: Toward Clarity and Grace, The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London, p. 78). 1. Clear sentences put characters in the subject and actions in the verb. 2. Clear sentences put old, less important information toward the beginning and new, more important information toward the end. 3. Clear sentences put topics toward the beginning and stresses toward the end.



KEY : INDEX POSITION and DISCUSSION, POINT



Know how a reader reads and craft your writing accordingly: As a writer, you set and hopefully meet the expectations of your reader. To set and meet expectations effectively, you must first understand how readers will tend to approach sentences, paragraphs, and sections of your document. When you understand the reader’s approach, you can craft each part of your writing to effectively communicate what you want to communicate to your readers.



You have already learned, for example, how readers tend to approach sentences. Readers tend to search for characters and actions in order to make sense of a sentence. And they tend to look for characters in the grammatical subjects and actions in the verbs.



Two parts of a paragraph or section: Readers tend to approach paragraphs and sections of a document in a particular way as well. They tend to look for a short opening segment that introduces ideas that will be developed further in the remainder of the paragraph or section. In short, they divide the paragraph or section into two parts.



The two essential parts of a paragraph: 1. The Index Position 2. The Discussion



The Index Position: o It is analogous to subject or topic. Like the subject or topic, it introduces your reader to the concepts and claims that you intend to expand upon. o It is always located at the beginning of a paragraph. o It establishes reader expectations with a set of indexed words (themes), which the reader uses to understand the remainder of the paragraph. o It is often more than one sentence long. The first sentence often functions as a transition from one paragraph or section to another. The second sentence will state the point of the paragraph or section.



The Discussion: o It is analogous to the verb or stress. Like the verb and stress, the discussion expands upon what came before it.



Paragraphs and sections have Points: You use paragraphs to designate where you begin to discuss one idea, where you end that discussion, and where you begin and end discussion of another idea. You also use paragraphs to make new claims about new subjects. Those new claims are called Points.



About the Point: o The sentence that answers the question, “What’s the point of this paragraph or section?” o It is written on the page explicitly. o Everything in the paragraph relates to it. o Every paragraph or section must have a point that s the claim of the document (main point). o It is often located at in the last sentence of the Index Position.



About themes: o These are the words that get indexed in the Index Position. o They are the words that your readers will think are most important. o To make sense of the paragraph or section, readers will look for these words throughout.



Grab the attention of your readers: You need to get your readers interested in what you have written (unless, of course, these readers are being paid to read your writing). The introduction should capture their attention and make them want to learn what you have to say.



Address a relevant problem/question: Your readers get interested when they think that your writing will tackle a problem/question that they think needs a solution/answer.



Essential elements of an introduction:  Present information that establishes a shared context.  Pose a problem/question that readers find relevant.  Articulate/promise a response/solution.



First, establish a shared context:  Before you state a problem/pose a question, you should show readers that you share common ground. You can do this by pointing to a widely held belief or theory.  Acknowledge the elements of that belief or theory that are correct or valuable. In other words, make concessions to the reader.



Then, state a problem/question:  Articulate an instability in your shared context. To accomplish this you can: o Attack a widely held belief or theory.

o Point to a gap in knowledge. o Mention something new (a new source/data that has become available) 

Your reader may not necessarily care about the problem/question you are writing about, and so, may not be interested in reading on. To deal with reader indifference (the so what? problem), you can explain the consequences of the instability. Tell them how this instability will specifically impact them?



Your reader may care about a different problem/question than the one you are writing about. To deal with reader resistance, persuade them why the problem/question you identify should matter to them.



Finally, articulate your solution/answer to the problem/question.  The last sentence(s) of your introduction should respond to the problem/question you have raised.  It should do so with an explicit solution/answer or it should promise an explicit solution/answer to be delivered later in the paper.



In the rest of your paper, it is important to show readers that your discussion is connected to your introduction and the problem/question you raised there. (example: We UChicago students know that the Regenstein library is a crowded place. Each of us has had to ascend floor after floor in search of a seat. The most widespread explanations for why “the Reg” is so crowded are that it is conveniently located and contains the largest collection of books relevant to the widest sector of the student population. These two factors do contribute to increased foot traffic at “the Reg”, but they are only part of the explanation for crowdedness. Indeed, they are likely not the most relevant ones. Last year, two graduate students conducted a survey of library goers. What they found, is that “the Reg” is only the most crowded library on campus between December and April. During all other times of year, Crerar and Harper libraries average about the same foot traffic as “the Reg”. Based on these findings, I conclude that to solve the problem of overcrowding at the Regenstein, thermostats across all libraries should remain consistent. In the cold months, students choose the warmest library, which is “the Reg”. In the warmer months, students migrate to different libraries.)



In the above example, the writer first establishes a shared context. She is writing to UChicago students as a fellow UChicago student. She also addresses a problem that she thinks her readers are likely to care about. She then acknowledges the legitimacy of widespread explanations for crowdedness at “the Reg”, but then attacks those explanations and introduces new data that has become available. After destabilizing the status quo, she articulates a solution to the problem of crowdedness: keep temperatures constant across all libraries. KEY : CLAIM, REASONS, EVIDENCE, WARRANT



In academic and professional writing, you are usually trying to convince your readers to adopt your point of view on a particular matter. You present a problem/question and your response to it is your argument. The argument makes a clear claim. It s that claim with grounds. An argument also includes a warrant and responds to reader objections through counterarguments.



Essential parts of an argument: CLAIM + GROUNDS + WARRANT



What is a claim?  It is the answer/solution that you present in response to the main question/problem you pose.  It is a statement your readers will doubt/be skeptical about. It is not a statement that your readers will accept at face value.  You know you have a claim when it is contestable, specific, able with evidence, and can be restated as its own opposite. (example: During Chicago winters, an individual is more likely to strike up conversation with a stranger in a neighborhood pub than in a neighborhood café. In the example above, the claim is qualified and limited. It also hedges and states conditions needed for the claim to apply. The claim only applies to neighborhood (qualified) pubs and cafes. These neighborhood pubs and cafes must be located in Chicago (limited). An individual is only more likely (hedge) to strike up conversation with a stranger, so he/she will not definitely strike up conversation in a bar over a cafe. The claim is only applicable during winters (stated conditions), not during any other time of year.)



What are grounds?

 

These are the statements that respond to your reader’s doubt/skepticism about your claim. There are two types of grounds: reasons and evidence



Reasons: These are the statements that explain why your reader should accept your claim. Reasons rest on evidence.



Evidence: These are statements that your reasons. o Evidence should be uncontestable, accurate, and reliable. (example: During Chicago winters, an individual is more likely to strike up conversation with a stranger in a neighborhood pub than in a neighborhood café. This is because individuals in pubs are drinking alcohol, while individuals in cafes are drinking coffee. A winter 2014 study conducted by Regenstein and Harper in Chicago neighborhood cafes and pubs, found that coffee drinkers were 10 times less likely to strike up conversation with a stranger than were beer drinkers. In the example above, the claim (articulated in sentence #1) is ed by a reason (articulated in sentence #2). This reason is ed by evidence (articulated in sentence #3). Do you, as the reader, think that the evidence s the reason? If so, why? If not, why? Could the writer use more relevant or effective reasons and evidence?)



What is a warrant?  This is an assumption that connects reasons and evidence to a claim. It is a generalized inference about the world.  You can identify a warrant with if (reason), then (claim) constructions. You can also do so with whenever (generalized version of reason), then (generalized version of claim) constructions. (example: If/whenever an individual drinks alcohol, then he/she is more likely to strike up conversation with a stranger. Consider the example above. Do you, as a reader, agree with the warrant?)