The Fulani People 1l4j3j

6/6/2010

FULA HISTORY

& CULTURE

Ambakisye-Okang Quaashie Nantambu Olatunde Dukuzumurenyi, PH.D.

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The Fulani People The Fulani people call themselves Fulve* (Pullo, in singuler).They were originally nomadic herders, traders and farming people living throughout West Africa. Today the majority of fulani people live urban centers. While their origins are disputed, Arab writers recorded their existence over 1000 years ago. However experts believe that they originated from a region that occupied the present day Northern Senegal. Over the centuries, they migrated with their cattle to occupy vast areas in the Sahel and Savannah regions of West Africa and evolved into many subgroups with a variety of designations including Fulve, Jelgove, Gurma, Gorgave, Fellata, Fula, Fulakunda, Bororos, Wodaabe, Peul, Pulaar, Halpulaar, Liptaako, Toucouleur, and Tukolor. Presently, they live in communities throughout much of the West-Africa, from Senegal to Cameroon and as far east as Sudan and Ethiopia.The fulani range covers an area larger than continental United States and western Europe. Historically, the Fulani played a significant role in the rise and fall of ancient African empires such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai and the Mossi states. They greatly contributed to the spread of Islam throughout Western Africa. More recently, slavery and colonialism dispersed Fulani throughout the Middle East, the Americas and Europe. American history books are full of individuals of Fulani origin who have distinguished themselves in North and South America and the Caribbean. Fulve have rich traditions and fascinating way of life. They have had a significant social, religious and political impact in West Africa. As minorities in most of the West African countries where they reside, the Fulani are steadily mixing with local dominant cultures. The phenomenon of local integration, combined with the impact of colonization and westernization, has slowly eroded the Fulani language and traditions.

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If nothing is done to maintain their culture and language, the Fulani will simply vanish in a few generations. Without an awareness of the unique richness and formidable contribution of the Fulani traditions and without a serious effort to conserve and sustain the Fulani heritage, their culture may be lost forever. It is increasingly important to preserve this ancient culture. Jamtan.Com will explore the history, traditions and many aspects of Fulani culture to promote a better understanding of the Fulani people. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------*Note; The letter V is read as a sound close to Bh which does exist neither in English nor in French.

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Society & Culture Notion of a culture The African diversity is bewildering. First, there are some Fifty Countries, Thousand of Ethnics groups and Tribes, Thousand languages mixed with foreign languages such as Arabophony, Anglophony, Francophony, Lusophony, and Hispanophony. Then, consider the prevalent religions, starting from the traditional ancestral African beliefs to the monotheistic religions such as Christianity and Islam. And finally, the entire diversity spectrum is super imposed on the real traditional cultures such as the Malinkes, the Bantus, the Hausas, the Yorubas and Fulani that span several modern Africa Countries. How can one speak of a single culture since African culture is not easy to comprehend? In spite the Diversity, and the subsequent vast number of subcultures, it is very possible to find a foundation of shared history, values, traditions, attitudes, and ways of live that bind together a group of people and defined them as culture. From this diversity, several distinctions could be made based on physical appearance, languages and religion. In Africa and everywhere else in the world the most enduring distinction is language. A person mother tongue is still one of the most important indices of cultural identity and therefore a Culture is best defined as people sharing a common language. Such are the Fulani of West Africa who shaa large degree of kinship Fulani are the quintessential people of primarily West Africa that embodies all of this diversity. The Fulani are so scattered across West Africa that their attitudes and sense of identity varies so considerably from place to place. Intermarriage with various groups and the lack of it in others cases has resulted in the variety of modern Fulani groups. Indeed, diversity is an separable part of Fulani's past and present traditions. The variations manifest them selves in their physical features, their social structure, their settlements and their daily occupation. However, their pastoralism, their cultural concept of Pulaagu and their religion have helped them maintain their distinctiveness.re language, history, ways of life and They are also held together by a common language, although this is being rapidly lost. Religion plays an important part in

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their live but it is their common background and history and their resilience in surviving in the hash Sahel environment which are really their strongest attributes. Indeed many Fulani suffered greatly in the drought which affected the Sahel region of West Africa during the 1970s and 1980s. But even when Fulani are forced to settle, many of their attitudes to life, their beliefs, an much of the social structure acquired during the pastoral period, survive. The Fulani were originally nomadic herders, traders and farming people living throughout West Africa. While their origins are disputed, Arab writers recorded their existence over 1000 years ago. Over the centuries, they migrated with their cattle to occupy vast areas in the Sahel and Savannah regions of West Africa and evolved into many subgroups with a variety of designations including Fulbe, Fellata, Fula, Fulakunda, Bororos, Wonaabe, Bauchi, Peul, Pulaar, liptaako, and Toucouleur. Presently, they live in communities throughout much of the region, from Senegal to Cameroon and as far east as Sudan. While most commonly called Fulani in current literature, they prefer to be called Fulbe. Historically, the Fulani played a significant role in the rise and fall of ancient African empires such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai and the Mossi states. They greatly contributed to the spread of Islam throughout Western Africa. More recently, slavery and colonialism dispersed Fulani throughout the Middle East, the Americas and Europe. American history books are full of individuals of Fulani origin who have distinguished themselves in North and South America and the Caribbean. The Fulani Social System As mentioned earlier in the text, the traditional social system is fairly complex. Intermarriage with various peoples of some groups has resulted in the variety of modern Fulbe groups. Furthermore, the concept of ethnic group or tribe is not a reference for many Fulanis. Fulanis and Africans in general traditionally liked to identify themselves and others by the social group titles. However, Three-tire distinctions can be made when considering Fulanis social systems: The major groups and the social groups more often called

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casts. The major groups are:given in the communities section.

The social groups are in general The Fula or Fulani society also has three castes: The Rimbe consist of the Fulbe proper who raise cattle and who have the political power. Three other main groups are the Neeybe who are craftsmen including the Maabube and the Lawbe, who are also praise singers and genealogists and mentioned below among the non-pastoral nomads. Jeyaabe or Muccube who are the former slaves, The Cast System Yaya Wane in his study Les Toucouleurs du Futa Toro (stratification social) has divided the Fulani society in three major Classes: Rimbhe, Neenbhe, Jiyaabhe which can be grouped as follow: The Traditional occupation within the Cast System in Futa Tooro is also provided below.

Social Groups Work Functions Titles Social Groups

Work Functions

Titles

Rimbhe-Ardiibhe

Can hold leadership in village, serve as Iman, etc.

Fulbhe, Toorodbhe

Rimbhe-Huunbhe

Free born, noble in class Sebhbhe, Jaawambhe, but generally in service Subhalbhe to a leader

Neenbhe-FecciramGolle

Artisans, Product

Neenbhe-Naagotoobheperformers, historians Naalankoobhe Jeyaabhe/Jiyaabhe

Maabubhe-Sanoobhe, Waylubhe, Sakkaebhe, Lawbhe Wammbhaabhe, Maabhubhe Suudu Paate

Captives of war laborers Maccubhe

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The Traditional occupation within the Cast System in Futa Tooro Tooroodo (sing), Toorodoe (Pl) leaders, Iman, Farmers Cuballo (sing), Subalbhe (pl) The Subalbhe. Specialized in fishing and river matters. Jaawando (sing), Jaawambhe (pl) Courtesans, diplomat intermediaries Tooroodo (sing), Toorodoe (Pl) leaders, Iman, Farmers Cuballo (sing), Subalbhe (pl)

The Subalbhe. Specialized in fishing and river matters.

Jaawando (sing), Jaawambhe (pl)

Courtesans, diplomat intermediaries

Ceddo (sing)

leaders, courtesans, position to leaders

Baylo (sing), Sebhbhe (pl)

leaders, courtesans, position to leaders

Mabe (sing) Maaabubhe (pl)

Weavers and Pottery makers

Labbo (sing) Lawbhe (pl)

Woodworkers

Sakke (sing) Sakkebhe (pl)

Leathers Workers

Gawlo (sing) Awlubhe (pl)

Singers, genealogist Griots

Bammbaado (sing) Wammbaabhe (pl)

Griots, Guitarists

Maccudo (sing) Maccubhe (pl)

Servants, entertainers

Explication of major social groups below

They have four main branches, each descending from a common ancestor, the Wollarbe or Dayebe, the Ouroube, the Yirlabe or Yillaga and the Ferobe. But normally the Fulbe identify themselves by their local territorial lineages. Within these there are the migratory groups they belong to, which are led by an ardo or 'guide'. The Fula or Fulani society also has three castes: The Rimbe consist of the Fulbe proper who raise cattle and who have the political power. Three other main groups are the Neeybe who are craftsmen including the Maabube and the Lawbe, who are also praise singers and genealogists and mentioned below among the non-pastoral nomads. Jeyaabe or Muccube who are the former slaves, some of whom are weavers among the Tukulor, also described below. Other descriptive used of various groups are: Fulbe Mbalu or Sheep Fulani are small groups in various countries herding sheep rather than cattle. Fulbe Ladde or Na'i or Bush or Cattle Fulani are found in different areas. There are a few clans that are completely

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nomadic, with grass or mat huts. Many migrate between rainy season and dry season villages. Some are semi-sedentary, and rely on the crops of the surrounding farmers. Some are prosperous with small herds; the men migrate with the cattle for part of the year leaving their families at home. Fulbe Ouro or Settled Fulani, who have settled for various reasons such as farming and education, etc. In Nigeria they are called Joodiibe or Fulbe Gariri. Those that have lost their cattle, are the poorest and despised by other Fulbe. The influence of the Toroobe paved the way for the pastoral Fulbe to move south into these areas for pasture. Wodaabe (see below) have their own form of Pulaaku called Mbodangaaku that unites them or 'holds their hands together'. A sense of responsibility to their fellow Wodaabe involving hospitality and generosity binds them together

Divisions of Fulbe Fulbe Waalo and Fuuta Tooro. The waalo is the floodplain on the south bank of the Senegal River where crops can be grown as the floods recede each year during October - November. This is distinguished from the Jeeri or Ferlo, which is the slightly higher ground south of the Senegal River that stretches south to include the course of the Ferlo river. In its centre is the town of Lingeer (Linguere). On the Jeeri crops can grown only in the rainy season. The Fulbe of the Futa Tooro live mostly in La Region du Fleuve of the Department of Podor, that is a region 250 km. long, south of the Senegal River between just south-west of Podor and Matam to the east. The Fuuta Tooro group of the Ururbe travel the furthest from near Njum to between Mbede and Haare Law. The Fulbe have attempted to maintain both their pastoralism and also engage in cultivation, for keeping one's herd is security against poor harvests. They have tended to divide the family with the father cultivating the field and the children looking after the cattle. But neither can be done successfully, and many Fulbe farmers and sedentary herders are being forced to move into the Ferlo, the area of the Fulbe Jeeri, so that there is a degree of conflict between these two groups of Fulbe. Fulbe Jeeri: in the centre of northern Senegal and a large number of diverse lineages still follow a semi-nomadic life, but this total possibly includes the Fulbe of the Waalo. They are named for the Jeeri or central region of dry higher ground south of the Senegal Valley, where most have lived since the 15th century. The Fulbe Jeeri can be divided between those groups who live in the areas of the old pre-colonial kingdoms nearer the coast, and those on the Jeeri further into the centre of Senegal. There are Fulbe Jeeri in Mali and probably others in the west of Gambia. The Jeeri is a wind-swept, semi-arid area receiving sparse rainfall, crossed by the Valley of the Ferlo River and numerous dry valleys and river-beds which have pasture only during the rainy season. The town of Lingeer (Linguere) forms the centre around which the various groups of the Fulbe to be found. The Fulbe on the Jeeri are divided into two major groups called Laccenaabe, or Fulbe of the Lacce area and the Jeenglebe or Jengeloobe. The former has twelve clans. Some of these are related to those among the Waalwaalbe and with whom they have when they migrate northwards in the dry season. The Jeenglebe consists of three groups located south of the railway between Louga and Lingeer and southwards to the Saalum Valley. The Fulbe Jeeri living on the Jeeri are family groups linked together by descent, who are still nomadic, or semi-nomadic as cattle raisers and with flocks of sheep and goats. During April the Fulbe Jeeri plant crops of millet, peanuts and beans on the Jeeri. In the following

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months during the rains they care for their animals and maintain their camps. After the harvest in October, when the rains are over, they move out of the Jeeri because in the dry season the watering holes dry up. They move either to the north towards the Waalo or south to the peanut basin, to return to the Jeeri in the following April. This movement was modified in the 1950s when artisan wells were drilled at 30 km. intervals on the Jeeri. The constant supply of water is making it possible to cultivate fields where the ground was previously too dry. Sedentary Fulbe and Wolof farmers have been encouraged to settle on the Jeeri and graze their herds close to the wells, so that the wells near the Ferlo valley are becoming surrounded. The pastoralists are finding it increasingly difficult to move their herds close to the water. The water from the wells does not guarantee pasture close to the villages, as the pastoralists once found out to their cost. In the drought of 1972-73 many Jeerinkoobe decided to stay by the wells to have water, however they soon ran out of pasture and lost many animals. Having learned this hard lesson, the Fulbe Jeeri have continued to be highly mobile, owning large herds of cattle and, more importantly, sheep and goats of which they have flocks of 500 to a 1,000 animals. Since the drought, the rainfall has been better, so that in most years, the majority of the Fulbe Jeeri are able to stay some 15 to 20 km. distant from the wells in the dry season and get better pasture than the farmers close to the wells. This has enabled them to adopt a semi-nomadic life style with semi-permanent camps for the families in reach of the boreholes, while the men travel with the herds looking for pasture. In this way the herds get the best of the pasture before the herds of the sedentary peoples, and they only need to go to the wells every second day. This means they move camp several times in the year to 'rotate' the herds over the pastures. But other Fulbe Jeeri continue to be truly nomadic with the whole families travelling outside the Jeeri in the dry season for pasture using straw huts, which that take apart to carry with them. In the past the Fulbe Jeeri have found dry season pasture in forest reserves established by the French to the south, where agriculture was banned. There is no pastoral alternative to these reserves because the surrounding country is heavily populated and cultivated by Serer and Wolof peoples West and south of the Jeeri region there is the area once occupied by the ancient kingdoms of Njambur, Kajoor, Bawol, Siin and Saalum. Here are other groups of Fulbe Jeeri. They are in the region of Njambur, Kajoor, Baol, Siin and Saalum in Senegal. These have had greater with the farming communities and so have more incentives to settle. The Fulbe in western Mali are located in Nioro and Kayes. Many of these originated from around Podor, in the Fouta Toro area of Senegal, but there are other villages of Fulbe that have a different origin. They spend the rainy season in some thirty villages in a 30 km. radius, mostly south-west of Nioro around Govmanwe. In the dry season they migrate some 200 km. southwestwards to the area north of Bafoulabe. Others are based around Segala and migrate southwards to the Senegal River Valley north-west of Bafoulabe.

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Others are found 50 km. north-east of Kayes close to Kontela. They speak Pulaar. Maasina (Macina) and Nampala Fulbe, Mali: These Fulbe are the central part of a number of interrelated areas of Fulbe, from Dilly and Nara through to northern Burkina Faso. They use, or have used in the past, the flooding of the Niger in its delta in central Mali as part of their migratory pastoralism. of the Fulbe in the Maasina region. The Fulbe live among many other peoples, including thousands of Bella, Moors, Tuareq, Bozo, Songhai and Dogon, and the estimate of their population may be affected by the fact that their social organisation, called the wuro, or a residential community, often includes more than the Fulbe. Each wuro (Fr. Ouro) is under the leadership of an Ardo, jooro or dioro who negotiates the use of the pastures with his opposite numbers. The wuro may have several thousand heads of cattle, so reciprocal renting of pasture between the wuros is often necessary in the dry season, during May to July. At this time the Fulbe get permission at 'gates' such as near J'Afarabe and Yuwaru to move into the flood plain of the Niger River to use the fresh pasture until July. When the river floods in the months from August to December the Fulbe migrate northwestwards into the Sahel, to avoid the mud and flies during August to October, going as far as to the south of ema in Mauritania, a distance of over 300 km. In the 1990s many have turned to the south into farming areas, because of the threat of attack by the Kel Tamasheq. They return to the Niger flood plain in November, and so start the cycle again. Nomadic groups include the Cookinkoobe, Naasaadinkoobe and Sonnaabe migrate from the north. Others have abandoned going into the Delta, pasturing their cattle in localised areas. The Fulbe live in semi-permanent villages, which also have one or two families of a craftsman caste, probably Lawbe or Inadan, working in work, leather, and gold and silver and also ex-slaves called maccube, who nowadays have to be paid to do menial work, such as cultivation, sweeping and carrying. Jallube herders (sing. Jallo) in the Douentza or Hayre region of Mali live in camps a few miles from villages of the Riimayde, the former slaves of the Fulbe, who are sedentary cultivators of millet. The Riimayde were either slaves of individual Jallube or of clans; but these arrangements were abolished in 1945. The Jallube themselves grow millet during the rainy season and trade milk with the Riimayde for millet, spices and other goods. The Jallube also cultivate as the Riimayde do it for them, and also herd the animals of some of the latter. The Jullube migrate for the dry season, north towards the Delta or southwards. Some move the short distance to the fields of the Riimayde, the rest travel some 30 to 100 km. to the fields of Dogon farmers. They return before the rainy season in July to September to plant again. The men are responsible for both the herding and the cultivation of the millet. The women are responsible for the milking. According to pulaaku Jallube fathers neither eat with, or speak to their sons, even though the sons do all the cultivation and herding for them, Instructions have to be ed by intermediaries. Burkina Faso has quite a few Fulani in the north-east. Jelgoobe, Djibo, northern Burkina

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Faso. The Jelgoobe claim to be descended from two chiefdoms who migrated from Haire region of Mali by 1750. According to their oral traditions, they arrived from Maasina in Mali, driving the cattle of the Jullube in the 17th century, because of famine and the political struggles of that region. But they did not escape these entirely, for they became in 1824 the eastern edge of the Islamic Diina kingdom of Aamadu Seeku, based in the Maasina, but rebelled and had their leaders killed. They appealed to the Mossi king of Yatenga, who attempted to impose Mossi rule. The Jelgoobe threw off both until the French arrived in 1864. They continue a very independent group. Many Fulbe have migrated eastwards to Oudalan, Liptako, Yagha and into Niger who continue to call themselves Jelgoobe. These and other Fulbe of different origins and varied dates of arrival are called Fulbe Jelgooji, like the Fulbe Kelli, who became subject to the Jelgoobe. But some of the Riimaybe, ex-captives, who possibly gaining their freedom in the conflict with the Mossi around 1834, live in the town of Djibo and speak the language of the Mossi. The town is about 25% Mossi, a further 18% are also Riimaybe speaking Fulfulde. In this region 72% of the population are of Fulfulde speaking and culture, but only 44% are Fulbe, the rest being Riimaybe former slaves, who now have independent farming communities. The Fulbe living in the surrounding hamlets speak Fulfulde and insist on keeping cattle to have status as cattle owners in the Fulbe tradition. Many migrated south during the droughts of the 1980s. But since then those that remained have prospered better than the farming population. This has been helped by new water holes and a cattle market in Djibo. They have a Inadan craft community, maabube - griots, living with them. Queguedo Fulbe, to the west of Tenkodogo in south-east Burkina Faso, are an example of small groups of Fulani who are settling among other ethnic groups to have a specialised pastoral role. They came from Maasina in Mali and work as herders for the Mossi, as well as having cattle of their own. While both sides profit from the arrangement, they tend to mistrust each other, the Mossi claiming that the Fulani tend to 'lose' only Mossi cattle. The advantages to the Mossi include keeping their cattle separate from their crops. Another reason used to be, keeping the cattle hidden from the tax inspector! But this tax had been abolished. These Fulbe migrate with the cattle herds, going north out of the area during the growing season. The Fulbe also do some cultivation, but have portable houses that can be moved. Niger has close to a million Fulbe, including the Bororo, right across the southern part of the country and west and north of Agadez. There has been a response of a few dozen.

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Traditions Greetings Greetings in Pulaar are formed from a series of questions from what we call the greeting sequence. The questions may be about family, health, work, the weather, etc., and will vary slightly depending upon the time of day. The questions from the greeting sequence always require one of the standard replies: Jamtan, Jam solo, or Ko mawdhum. Greetings are highly ritualized, and at this point in the conversation no one expects to hear the truth about you health, family problems, or whatever. All encounters with everybody should always begin with a greeting meaning several appropriate questions from the sequence and a handshake. It is normally the person who arrives who should begin the greeting. In fact, greetings could be viewed as the fulfulde equivalent to English expressions such as Pardon me or Excuse the interruption. In other words, greetings are the mark of politeness themselves. Foreigners who customarily fail to greet are viewed as being very impolite. Greetings normally take the form of one person asking several questions. When he pauses, the other person asks in his turn. Then there may be a slight pause and the whole thing will begin again. The length of the greeting will depend upon how well two people know each other, how long it has been since they have seen each other, and upon the respective age and status of the persons involved. Finally, you should notice some of the body language, gestures, and tone of voice which go with greetings. When you are meeting a stranger or someone older than yourself, it would be considered impolite to look him or her directly in the face. Instead, greetings are often mumbled quickly and in a low tone of voice, with the two participants looking at the ground. To Americans this attitude seems to signal disinterest in what one is doing. But in this case it actually means the opposite. It simply means that you are showing respect for the person you are greeting. (See also Family) (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja Diallo)

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Politeness You will find the concept of being polite is something quite different from what you are accustomed to. For example, there is no real Fulfulde/Pulaar equivalent for the English expression thank you. A jaaraama can be used as thank you, but it is used much more sparingly than the English expression. In your day to day s with people it is simply not necessary to automatically use expressions such as excuse me, please, pardon me, thanks, I'm sorry to bother you but..., etc. The nearest Pulaar equivalents to these expressions tend to be reserved for a more serious and important context. They are not used every time one interrupts another person. (In fact, the whole concept of interrupting is an American concept in which we express the cultural value that time is money, and in which we try to minimize daily human s to a business rapport.) In English we probably would have said Excuse me, but could you piease show me where the road is We would have marked the sentence several times with words of deference and politeness. We must show the other person that we know we are interrupting him, even bothering him. That is our formulaic way of being polite On the other hand, in Fulfulde/Pulaar it is perfectly polite to simply state a request. People expect all sorts of human interactions during the day. There are, however, certain very important signs of respect and politeness which Americans tend not to recognize at first. Most important is, once again, the greetings. Correctly greeting people is one of the most important signs of respect that you can show them. You should never ask anybody for something without greeting them first. Politeness is a very important and ired behavior in Fulani society.That behavior must be transparent in all social interactions including greetings, exchanges, and conversations.People are very sensitive to looks, attitudes, and communications styles. A polite behavior is specially expected between young and older. Some attitudes that are frowned upon include starring at an older person and talking back. In order to develop the complex web of social relationships which will make your stay in any village or town enjoyable, you should get in the habit of not only greeting the people you happen to run into on the Street or in business, but also of deliberately going to visit someone you haven't seen for a while for no other purpose than to greet them. ing by someone's house even for only five minutes will please them enormously. Secondly, it is not considered impolite to interrupt others by greeting them when you arrive, even if they

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are talking between themselves. In fact, to enter a room and fail to greet everybody(including shaking hands) would be seen as rude. Also, always acknowledge the presence or arrival of someone else. You should not simply walk past people, even if you have already greeted them earlier. When someone else comes into your presence you can always say A arli. When you arrive, you can always say Mi artii (I have returned). (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja Diallo) Daily Planning (See also Education) Telling time by the hour and the minute is something which Pulaar don't probably have much use for. However, people mark the times of the day either by noting the position of the sun or by the five Muslim prayers which are called out from the mosque. The times of day which (subaka, weeti, kilkilde, jamma, etc.) are units of time more or less measured by the position of the sun. This is one factor that divides everyone's day, and people make their plans accordingly. Furthermore, one of the ritual obligations of all Muslims is to pray five times a day at specified times. People will therefore use these points of time as a reference.Most educated urban dwellers, however, use standard time. Daily activities change according to the season of the year. Being part of a rural farming community will make it important to know the yearly seasonal cycles. Daily activities for both men and women change with the season. It is important in planning work projects to go by seasons since people are much busier during certain seasons than others. Periods of time which can be effectively exploited for various purposes depend upon weather, the seasonal flow of work, seasonal migration patterns, and times of the year when money and leisure time are available. (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja Diallo

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Holidays The most important holidays of the year are religious holidays. Of the four, Koorka and Taaske (Ramaan and Koriete) are the most important. Koorka (from the verb hoora, to fast) is the month of fasting prescribed by Islam. The month ends with a day of celebration. called Juulde Koorka. Haaraan, or the New Year, is the only non religious holiday we discuss. Maawluudu commemorates the birth of the Prophet Mohammad. Taaske is the Day of Atonement which reminds Muslims of the covenant between God and Abraham. (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja Diallo) Culture Clash THE AMBIGUOUS ADVENTURE by C. H. Kane Culture clash is dangerous to the individual who experiences it in many ways. It can cause, for example, the loss of faith, the rejection of one's values, and then the adoption of alien customs. Thus, the recipient of the new foreign culture always faces many difficulties with his own people. As a result, this person will live isolated from his people as they will do to him. The culture clash problems are particularly dangerous to some African students. This is the case with the main character of the novel under study here. Diallo went to Europe and learned philosophy, science and technology. From this point, the study of Kane's novel here is based on the episode of initial stage of culture clash with the first of Diallo (in Paris) with the European culture. The second stage is Diallo, the student, alien at home with a foreign culture. This culture clash puts him in an ambiguous situation first. Then, Diallo faces the tragic death under the fool man hands as the final main stage in the novel.

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The Concept of Cousinhood Fulani communities such as HaalPulaar of Senegal, have instituted a unique custom and code of conduct called dendiraagal, to govern not only the relationship between the of the family and of the society but also between of the community and other ethnic groups. The dendiraagal or cousinhood, is a tool to express a friendly and fun relationship and to induce a fun and non-threatening interaction between people. It aims at establishing a closer relationship between individuals at three different levels:the first or close level, the median level and the extended level. The first level concerns particularly the link between the respective descendants of a brother or a sister. In this society the term cousin is applicable to the children of ones mother's brothers or father's sisters. The children of ones mother's sisters and father's brothers are called brother and sister, not cousin in Pulaar. This first level is limited only to the family or clan. In reality two particular kinds of privileged kinship emerge from the definition of the cousinhood in Fulani Society. On the other hand, these privileged relations concern a person and his mother's brother and, on the other hand, the relation concerns a person and his father's sister. The respective descendants of one's uncle and one's aunt are called, collectively "dendiraave" or cousins. The second or median level, concerns the relationship of cousinhood that exists between groups within a society of the Fulani through the patronymic of the individuals. People who are not biologically related, but who stand in the relationship of dendiragal because of their last names or clans : between clans, such as between the Sih family and the Njaay family, or between Bah and Dialo for example. See Table of Dendirabhe below. These relationships are known as Poking fun or joking relationships. That is, whenever cousins see one another, they tease or joke with each other. This kind of familiar behavior may go on even between two strangers who discover that they are cousin. In the relationship of dendiraagal, there is a concept of sharing and that of a leader and follower, but always in good and friendly humor.

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Table of Dendirabhe Last Name

Cousin

Bah

Diallo

Sih

Njaay

Jallow

Bah

Njaay

Sih

Kan

Bah

Joop

Jeng

Cultural Cousinage Finally, at the third, extended level, dendiraagal reaches the trans-societal level, and deals with other cultural groups. It fosters a sense of good neighbor relation that the Fulani and their neighboring communities maintain. Fulani People has shown a great sense of cooperation and friendship with the all other groups they have settled with or whose land their vast herd cross during transhumance periods. The concept of cousinhood is extended to them as well.This has done well to avoid conflict in the regions they inhabit, and to foster an harmonious relationship and peaceful cohabitation with the others ethnic groups for centuries. The relationship between Fulve and Maouri in Niger and that between Halpuular-en and the Serer are some of the shining examples of the extended cousinhood. Links to Fulani Cousins and Neighbors Serer (Senegal) Jola (Senegal) Wolof (senegal) Maouri (Niger) Gobirawa (Niger) Kanuri (Niger) Wangarawa (Niger) Bambara (Mali) Dogon (Mali) Hausa (Nigeria) Manlinke (Guinea) Soussou (Guinea) Ewe (Togo) Mina (Togo) Kabre(Togo) Djerma (Niger) Arabs (Chad) Gorane(Chad) Fon (Benin) Adja(Benin) Yoruba (Nigeria) Baya (Central Afrique) Mandjia (Central Afrique)

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Gurunsi (Burkina) Senufo(Burkina) Lobi(Burkina) Bobo(Burkina) Akan (Cote D'Ivoire) Mandinka (Gambia) Sarakhule (Gambia) Akan (Ghana) Moshi-Dagomba(Ghana) Ga(Ghana) Ewe(Ghana) Balanta ( Guinee Bissau) Manjaca( Guinee Bissau) Mandinga( Guinee Bissau) Mande (Mali) Songhai(Mali) Tuareg(Mali) Moors (Mauritania) Harateen(Mauritania) Arabs (Sudan) For more information click le following link: http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people.html

Fulani Pathways Pulaaku Central to their life is their code of behavior called Pulaaku, which enables them to maintain their identity across boundaries and changes of life style. Pulaaku has been described as 'Fulaniness' , decorum, good manners, and pastoral chivalry. Pulaaku involves important virtues such as, munyal, which is patience, self control, mental discipline, prudence; semteende which is modesty and respect for others, even for enemies, and also hakkille, wisdom, forethought, prudence in managing his personal affairs and giving hospitality. The Pullo, as the Fulani call themselves, is trained to be stoic, never to show his feelings. He is disciplined, thoughtful and proud but respectful. He also tends tohave a deep emotional attachment to cattle. It means that one is a better person if one is self-sufficient and relies on few personal possessions and comforts.

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Pulaaku implies that one can manage onself well and also that one can manage one's herd well. The Pullo or Fulbe male sees his people as having a priestly role to maintain the triangular relationships of interdependence between himself, his wife and family, and his cattle. Indeed, many Fulani groups give to their cattle individual endearing names.His cattle give a man milk and prestige, and is treated like an extended family rather than just an economic asset. In return he gives them pasture, water and protection. The wife contributes food preparation, dairy production and fertility. Therefore the man has both skill as a herder but also wisdom and character to fulfill his responsibility. To appreciate the moral principles governing the Fulani life, one must have a deep understanding of the notion of Pulaaku or Fulaniness. Pulaaku along with their cattle, language and religion, is the basis of their extreme pride or dimmaaku/dimaanku. As Riesman (1977:128) say, Pulaaku is an exact structural equivalent of the English word chivalry and, like it, designates at once certain moral qualities and a group of men possessing these qualities. It is both the appropriate code of Fulve behavior and simultaneously refers to the group of men who embody it. The dominant traits of Laawol Pulaaku or the Fulani way are munyal, hakkiilo, semteende, sagata and an intimate understanding of both the Fulfulde language and people. Munyal is a cross between strength and courage in adversity and a stoic acceptance or endurance of the supposedly pre-ordained vicissitudes of life. It is often translated as patience. The word hakkiilo (hakkille) (intelligence or common sense) conveys a blending of prudence and shrewdness in livelihood management and face to face encounters. Semteende (shame) is best described both as a lacking of restraint (gacce/yaage) and self-control in daily social interaction, and evidencing a weakness when facing adversity (Riesman 1974). It is most often translated as shame. The French term pudeur or informed sense of decency is closer to the mark. In essence it represents any revelation of weakness or nonconformity to the code of pulaaku. When someone acts shamefully Fulve say o sempti meaning they shamed themselves, or alternatively, o alaa semteende (o ala gacce) meaning they have no shame. In other words a pullo must know of the social constraints on behavior and be able to avoid contravening them in all situations, especially in front of his in-laws. But not having semteende a pullo would escape from social constraints. A true pullo is in total control of his emotions and impulses (Kirk-Green, 1986). Semteende, is also a lack of pulaaku (or even a fear of lacking it) is the motivating force for the Fulani to behave as Fulani. Without cattle it is difficult to exhibit pulaaku and if one has no longer any cattle then one has probably

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not acted as a pullo. In pre-colonial times, loss of cattle was shameful. It implied that one was not man enough to defend his herd and by implication, not brave enough to get some back. These days the shame is attached to inadequate shepherding ability in the face of a degrading environment. Sagata means brave in the senses of both courage of a warrior and hard work of any person. It is often used to congratulate someone for their valor and accomplishments. More often, Pulaaku is characterized by the taste or ndaku for cows and an intimate knowledge of cattle husbandry, self-control over physical needs and impulses, and the choice of stimulation over comfort. One must not express any discomfort in public, whether it be a pain, physical or moral (such as grief), or a need (like hunger, thirst). Of course one does not enact pulaaku all day, but for limited periods of public interaction. Thus as Riesman (1975:4547) maintains, there are formal and informal aspects of life and behavior and these are not always easy to differentiate. Pulaaku, must be ed on by each generation as high moral values of Fulve otherwise it will disappear, which it seems to be when herds are lost and clans break up to seek for work in the settled society. It is taught by any Rimve relative, or perhaps by his parents and also by mawdo laawol pulaaku, a leader of his clan. To be a true Fulani, and described by such as O waadi, or banti, or teendru Pulaaku, means he not only speaks the language but knows how to live as a Fulani. The Fulani pathways (Laawol Fulve): Munyal = patience, self control, discipline Gacce/ Semteende = modesty, respect Hakkille = wisdom, forethought, managing it's own Sagata /Tiinaade= courage, hard work Adapted from : Weekley, Paul, University of Western Sydney (...Among the Fulbe Jelgobe of Northern Burkina Faso, thesis)

Initiations Children begin to acquire knowledge of their ancestral ties to Fulani family when they accompany and assist their parents in work and social interaction. They travel to the farm, to market and to the compounds of friends and relatives. They are sent running on errands to deliver yams, to fetch water, to bid a neighbor visit, to perform countless tasks assisting in the progress of daily life and sociality. Through this participation in quotidian existence they gain an emerging sense of the cultural environment. They learn also about friendship and the importance of cousinhood(link to Cousinhood )Simple as it is, this rite embodies a fundamental relationship between individual, family, cattle and land which is the crux of personhood in Fulani society. As children grow up they learn to have a particular kind of relationship with their bodies, one which links their sense of their own masculinity with the ancestral traditions of Fulani. They will wait until the auspicious moment to perform important initiations such as circumcision, sharo, and cattle herding. Various rites and performances are specifically

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aimed at somatically transmitting the knowledge of the Fulani person. Whether this knowledge is embodied in aesthetically structured performance, such as the guerewol dance of the Wodhaabe, or in a more arduous task such as the cattle crossing of the Jafurabe of Mali,the performed aspects of ancestral practices are considered crucial to the preservation of Fulani identity, and the Pulaaku. Circumcision When a child reaches the age between 8 and 15, he goes trough the special ritual of circumcision. In the Fulani society, the traditional ritual of circumcision is a big event that required the participation of all the segments of the society; each social class, and each member of the family has a specific role according to his relationship with the candidate to the circumcision. The traditional ritual of circumcision in the Fulani society focused on religious and cultural perspectives. It is rooted in the belief in the myth of androgyny, in the primitive animist societies where the ritual was required for gender, sexual identity, and in the strong belief in the Sunna of Muslim societies where the ritual is required for purification. In the past, it was done following certain traditional rules among which the choice of the "Selbe-coach", the participation of the group, the isolation, the initiation for individual socialization. Here, the ritual has many goals like fecundity, sexual determination, gender determination, and integration into adult community. It also reinforces the Fulani values of courage, patience, self control, and mental discipline which are the fundamental attributes of Pulaaku. In this society, female circumcision is done in the same context as male circumcision with which it shares the same origin, the same significance. In addition, the female circumcision has the justification of a protection of the girl's virginity and the sexual intercourse control. Today, the western influences on the traditional ways of life, the advance of medical sciences, and urbanization, have produced great changes to the traditional rituals of circumcision. Now, the operation is done in hospitals without isolation or initiation. It is done just for conformity. So, the traditional justifications of the ritual have lost their values. Nowadays, the discovery of medical complications has changed the view about the ritual, and especially the female circumcision. Throughout the world, female circumcision has met strong opposition and has been abandoned on the whole in many societies.

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Sharo The institution of vital importance to the nomadic Fulani, and all kinds of customs and ceremonies has arisen around it. One such ceremony is the sharo, a public flogging that is a test of manhood. Not all Fulani nomadic groups observe this ceremony or insist on it before a young man may marry. For some it is merrily a sport, indulged in for its own sake. Probably the keenest exponents of the sharo are the Jafun Fulani found in Nigeria. The sharo is a test of endurance; a youth is expected to undergo severe flogging in public without flinching. It is normally staged twice a year, during the dry-season guinea corn harvest and the Muslim festival of Id-elkabir. It may occasionally be held during a marriage, at the naming ceremony of the firstborn child of a renowned sharo exponent, to honor a chief, or as a contest between clans. The sharo is a festival in its own right and attracts Fulani from far and near. It is usually held in a marketplace and lasts for a week. Men and women gather at the marketplace all dressed up for the occasion. Although various kinds of entertainment are available the maidens dance, performances by well-known minstrels, and all kinds of tricksters these are only a prelude to the main act. The young men who are to be flogged are attended by their seconds (those who might act in their stead should they be unable to finish the act) and surrounded by a small crowd of relatives, friends, and well-wishers. When the sharo is about to begin, young men carrying staffs and pretending fierceness clear the ground of spectators. The tempo of the music, provided mainly by drums, quickens; the youths cry shrilly and recite incantations. At this point one of the young men to be flogged comes out and strikes a defiant pose with one leg crossed over the other and arms raised clutching either a staff or a mirror into which he gazes with apparent indifference. Another young man of about the same age and size approaches, wielding a strong, supple cane about a half inch thick, and moves around the victim taking careful aim. Without warning he lands the whip heavily on the other's ribs, sometimes drawing blood. Blow upon blow may be struck, with the victim shouting for more. Other youths acting as referees observe the proceedings closely, ensuring that the blows are fairly struck. The point, however, is that the victim does not flinch but shows utter indifference to pain and even sneers at his attacker. If he is able to achieve this, his family and friends surround him with joy, offering gifts and congratulations. Even the belief that the youth may have fortified himself with charms and pain-resistant drugs does not dim the joy. He has now displayed his manhood and is considered worthy of a wife. Incidentally, the Fulani have herbal medicines that heal the wounds fairly quickly, leaving only scars that the youth may display for all to see.

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From The Fulani by Pat I. Ndukwe Test of endurance an honor avec le fichier pdf Art Society Rock Art Paintings Fulani art and culture is manifested in art, dance, language, literature, folklore, music, and even the environment. The Fulani people are well known for the delicate decoration of utilitarian objects such as milk bowls that reflect their nomadic and pastoral lifestyle. The history of the Fulani in West Africa begins in the fifth century A.D. Islamized early on and traveling constantly, they did not develop a tradition of figural, sculpted art. The complex nature of art among Fulani is widely recognized but still understudied.. In this site the following is the described Like most Art in Africa, the Fulani Art shows rich traditions, histories and life styles. Fulani's artifacts depicting the early life of the people date back to thousands of years. The Among the most ancient of the art are the rock paintings from Tassili N'Anger (6000B.C). Examination of certain rock paintings in the Tassili-N'Ajjer suggests the presence of proto-Fulani cultural traits in the region by at least the fourth millennium B.C. Tassili-N'Ajjer in Algeria is one of the most famous North African sites of rock painting. Scholars specializing in Fulani culture believe that some of the imagery depicts rituals that are still practiced by contemporary Fulani people. At the Tin Tazarift site, for instance, historian Amadou Hampate Ba recognized a scene of the lotori ceremony, a celebration of the ox's aquatic origin. In a finger motif, Ba detected an allusion to the myth of the hand of the first Fulani herdsman, Kikala. At Tin Felki, Ba recognized a hexagonal carnelian jewel as related to the Agades cross, a fertility charm still used by Fulani women.With the disappearance of many traditions and other aspects of African culture, works of traditional African art are becoming more and more scarce. Fulani artistic, combining the useful and the beautiful, have developed diverse traditions of Pottery, Jewelry. Textile, and Body Adornment, such as Hair Braiding, Cicatrisation (scarification), and Body Painting. Working generally within their own social system or as part of gender role, the Fulani artistic has displayed a talent ired by many people from within and outside the Fulani group.

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Due to their nomadic life style, Fulani did not Manufacture their own art object which they ordered most of time from a neighboring ethnic group such as the Dogons, the Tuareg, and Yoruba. They also entrust of specialize castes with the fabrications of their object. These specialized castes include for instance: Maabube who do Pottery and Weaving; Lawbhe who are the caste of Woodworkers, Waylubhe the Caste of Blacksmith and Jewelers; Sakkabhe caste of leatherworkers; Wammbaabhe caste of Griot and Guitarist and Awlubhe caste of Griot Genealogist. Therefore, the label Fulani art may often reflect ownership rather than manufacture.

Fulani Aesthetic

Bracelets, Earrings, Necklaces, rings, Beads, leather grisgris, amulets, knife handles, and sandals are decorated with geometric designs that reflect Fulani symbolism . Objects are tinted in bright colors of red, yellow, or white and green, and often feature long fringes. Some of the designs are cross ethnic: the zigzag bordered by parallel lines, for instance, is shared by Fulani and Dogons alike. Fulani aesthetic expression is, with exceptions, inscribed on objects or sites of an ephemeral nature. Above all, Fulani people are known for their mastery of verbal art expressed in song and poetry. They are also renowned for their elaborate art of body adornment. Men and women alike are fond of tattooing. They wear amulets (lohol) as both protective and decorative elements. Women wear heavy twisted gold earrings (dibi), gold necklaces (caaka), and copper or white metal bracelets, round or open with bulging extremities, and delicately engraved with dotted lines. Blacksmiths used to make heavy and thick anklets that gave young Wodaabe women a "cowlike" step, much appreciated in this herders' culture. Women from other Fulani groups wore copper or brass leg ornaments or anklets made by the lost-wax casting process. These rings might once have served as currency. Men's clothing includes a conical herdsman hat in red, black, and natural color made of woven raffia and leather, with geometric design in the form of a cross, complete with a prominent button, the "Mount of the world." Men also wear leather or baggy fabric pants, and use woven blankets with geometric patterns. Wodaabe people are famous for organizing male beauty contests, know as yaake or gerewol. Fulani women also specialize in the decoration of calabashes and wooden bowls (la'al kosam). The Fulani people have a rich heritage of crafts, including textiles, wood-carving, and mud architecture. Body adornment and hair decoration stand out among the people's most distinctive arts.

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Body Adornment Body modification and adornment is a universal culture. All civilizations have attempted to change their body in order to fulfill their cultural construct of beauty, religious and/or social obligations. The Fulani are an exceptionally beautiful people who take great pride in their appearance. They are known for their adherence to tradition and fierce resistan. Ear piercing is widely practiced piercing among the Fulanis. Ear piercing mark the life stages of an individual and his group affiliation. Ear cartilage piercing among Fulanis also emphasized Beauty and Wealth. ce to any other influences.Henna, also known as Puudi in Pular is the painting of portions of the body using temporary ink (usually a dark orange color) made from the herb henna. The patterns of henna painting vary from culture to culture, but in the Fulani culture black henna is used as a temporary tattoo covering entire hands, forearm, feet and shin during weddings, baptism, and special holidays. In Traditional cultures people used body paint, scarification, and/or tattooing for wars, different clans and family purposes. The most well known Fulani group who use body panting extensively is the Wodaabe. Hair Decoration Gourds or Calabashes whether decorated or not, basically fulfill practical functions in the daily activities of the Fulani family. Cut into contains of various shapes and sizes, they are used for serving foods and drinks, for milking cattle and are carriers vessels. However, the decorated ones have additional value. They are highly prized objects of prestigious and aesthetic value. Used has containers for food and drink they embellish the service; as tools in the dairy trade they attract customers, thereby Women generally put on elaborate and colorful scarf around their head. However, among young women the care of the hair is the one aspect of personal adornment to which they pay much attention. For instance, during the Diafarabe cattle crossing festival, one of the biggest Fulani festival in Mali, girls dress up to welcome their boyfriends when they return from months herding cattle in the desert. Most important to them are their hair decorations. They may take about four or five days to dress their hair for the festival, about two more days to plait the braids, and

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then two or three more to weave in the coins and the amber. The hair styles are so elaborate that they are giving special names. The hair styles are elevated to the level of pure artistic form. The hair style depends on the locality, sex, age and social status. However, there may be preference for design which is convenient for their household activities which involve carrying loads on their heads. (See more on PDF) Jewelry Jewelry has a special place among Fulanis. Jewelry has been a symbol of status and wealth, created to decorate and adorn and used for trade. From Senegal in the west to Cameroon in the east, Fulanis strive to acquire jewelry Cudaari in Gold, Silver, Bronze, Beads, Amber etc.., The among of jewelry worn depends on the place the subgroup to which they belong as well as their age, gender and time. The necklaces, aprons, cache-sex jewelry, denote age, status and social condition. They were worn to attract attention and protect against evil. Men wear minimal jewels until their middle age. The Women however, put on lavish style of jewelry on them.

Amber and Beads Fulani women are readily recognizable by their exquisite adornments--large gold earrings known as kwottone kanye, heavy silver rings and bangles, and hairdos that incorporate large amber beads, glass beads. Fulani women generally receive their jewelry on the death of her mother or at marriage as a dowry from her husband. Adornment is a distinctive African way of showing of their beauty. Cowry Shells, Beads, Amber, Silver and gold are part of the panoply used for personal adornments. The cowry shell has long been a very important element in our jewelry. As the first universal for of currency used on the African continent, it is symbolic of wealth. It also symbolizes the connection of African people to each other.

Beads have played an important role in throughout Africa. While glass beads are perhaps the most recognizable form of adornment in Africa today, these items did not receive widespread acceptance until the fifteenth century when Europeans began importing beads for trade purposes. Despite the widespread use of glass beads, stone and organic materials (e.g., seeds, bone, teeth, shell, ostrich eggshell) have remained integral components in personal ornaments throughout the country. The earliest known African

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beads are disk-shaped ostrich eggshell beads that date to circa 10,000 B.C. Ostrich eggshell beads are still used today in the creation of personal ornaments by a variety of groups in Africa, including the Fulani. Amber is a fossilized resin, generally tree sap, light yellow to deep brown, opaque to translucent, which give off an evergreen fragrance when burned with a hot needle. This will distinguish it from other amber-like beads. Amber is worn by many traditional African ethnic groups. The Meaning and History of the Cowry Shell The ever popular cowry shell has many uses and meanings. It has shown up in the form of money, jewelry, and even religious accessories in almost every part of the world. Found in the islands of the Indian Ocean, the cowry shell soon gained popularity throughout much of ancient Africa, where it has been used as a monetary unit. Its influence, however, also spread to China, where it was used as a form of currency to such an extent that the Chinese used its shape to form their pictograph for money! Today excavations have found some of the money of ancient China in the form of brass and silver cowry shells. Wherever the cowry shells were found, it seems as if they were thought of as wealth. Spiritually, according to African legend if you are attracted to cowry shells you could be family to an ocean spirit of wealth and earth. It also represents Goddess protection which is very powerful and connected with the strength of the ocean. Throughout Africa, and South and North America, the cowry symbolized the power of destiny and prosperity. Thought of as the mouth of Orsisa Divinities, it also is believed to have taught stories of humility and respect.

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Dress and Decoration The Fulani are known for ther elaborate body adornment from the striking clothes they wear with flair, to the ponderous gold jewelry & the tribal tattoos. Elaborate gold earrings worn by women are an indication of wealth and status. They reflect the importance of gold in the trans-Saharan trade

Textiles There are several artisan castes among the Fulani people, including the Maboube, hereditary weavers. Their most important traditional products are blankets, known as Leppi Chianiadhe or khasa, which are woven from hand-spun sheep's wool. They are six to eight feet long, made up of narrow strips sewn together, often with stripes and patterns in red and black on white. Khasa are woven to order and used by men who camp out in the desert with their herds of cattle. Batik and tye dye cloth of various pattern are well known internationally. Mudcloth is also popular among many African ethnics groups including Fulanis. Mud dye has been used for many centuries to African culture from generation to generation. Mud Cloth Paintings Mud Cloth Paintings are made using an ancient and extensive process. The fabric is all hand spun making a number of individual cloth strips. Each strip of cloth is then sewn together. The entire piece of fabric is then dyed in tea made from Bogalon tree found in Mali, West Africa. The tea acts as a fixative for mud painted designs that are hand painted using specially prepared mud. Some parts of

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the fabric are then bleached after the entire process is complete to produce the white areas The Making of Mudcloth The making of mudcloth is a time-consuming process, normally taking four days to a week to complete depending on weather. Each piece is made of 100% cotton, and is completely and totally hand-made. Normally mudcloth is made totally from scratch. The men start the process by weaving cotton thread on a loom. The loom is normally hand-held and makes a strip of cloth five to six inches wide. For a normal sized ( 6'x45") piece they will weave nine s and then sew them together. From then on the women have traditionally painted and designed the cloth. A mudcloth artist is much like any western artist dealing in a specific field. Each concept must be taught and learned over a long period of time. A person wishing to work in the art of mudcloth has to be taught how to make each of the different dyes out of organic substances, as well as how each of the substances will react with the fabric and fixatives. The first step in making the cloth is to set it in a solution that dyes the cloth yellow and acts as the fixative: typically this is a tea made from the Bogolon tree which is native to Mali, West Africa. The mud designs are then hand painted onto the cloth with the tea acting as a fixative for the mud dye. The mud used to make mudcloth is usually mixed with water and then set aside to sit for about one year. Using twigs or metal instruments the artist will paint the designs with the mud, being sure to saturate the area so it will not wash out. The fabric is then washed and another layer is applied over the first. The fabric is then dried and put in an organic solution to make the patterns appear darker. Finally, on black and white fabric, a soda is painted on to the areas that have no patterns. This bleaches the fabric causing it to regain its original cotton white. The Colors of Mudcloth A mudcloth artist is much like any western artist dealing in a specific field. Each concept must be taught and learned over a long period of time. A person wishing to work in the art of mudcloth has to be taught how to make each of the different dyes out of organic Each color in a mudcloth sheet has its own meaning. The most traditional coloring has been the black background

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with white designs. This is typically used for story telling or the portrayal of a proverb. Another color popular among hunters, and the Fulani people is the rust. This color is preferred as it does not show dirt and also as it is supposed to represent the strong supernatural powers that protect the hunter. The rust color signifies blood either from the hunt, or from warfare. Because mudcloth is made from the soils, it has been useful to both groups as a form of camouflage. White mudcloth is perhaps the most difficult fabric to make as it is easy to stain with the dye: it is typically worn by girls and women in ceremonial events. Another color rarely seen is gray, this color is worn as camouflage by hunters. The cream color is the natural color of the mudcloth before it has been dyed. Many of the other colors also represent meanings. Recently many colors have been added to the traditional colors. Bright reds, purples, yellows and oranges are all new colors that are being developed by new artists. Many people of older generations view the newer colors with disdain as they are not made in the traditional ways.

Patterns of Mudcloth Mudcloth is often meant to be interpreted, and many times there are long discussions on how the patterns should be put together. Many times there is no symbolic meaning: the colors and patterns are simply meant to be beautiful. People often attach symbolic meaning behin the design of their fabric. (From http://www.adire.clara.net/francophone.htm) Blankets and Covers of the Sahel The Sahel, where most Fulani live, is an arid region south of the Sahara. The area reaches both extreme heat during the day and also can get very cold at night. Throughout this area wool or cotton blankets and cover cloths are used both for warmth in the cold nights and as protection against mosquitoes. Mande speaking weavers (Mande, Bamana, Maninka, Mandingo, Yarse, etc) would seem to be the most widespread and influential producers of these cloths, but distinctive types are also made by the Fulani (Peul), Hausa, and Dogon among others. All utilize a weft faced weave structure, producing bands of designs across the cloth strips. This appears to be an ancient technique in the area as it is used on Tellem textile fragments dating back to the C11th &12th found in Bandiagara, Mali. Through the twentieth century some cloths, such as Fulani kaasa and arkila, continued to be woven in long established designs, while many other new styles developed to make vivid and inventive use of the full range of imported dyed cotton that became available. Fragment of a rare and beautiful type of Fulani wedding blanket called an "arkilla jenngo". These spectacular cloths of up to 6 or more metres length were woven only by a few Maabuube (the sub-group weaving clan or the Fulani) weavers primarily for use by certain

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noble Tuareg families. Chiefs have used Fulani blankets for centuries to line ceremonial litters, cloak important drums, and various other display purposes. (From http://www.adire.clara.net/francophone.htm) Fulani Wedding Blanket Fulani wedding blancket display beautiful and popular design patterns. An interesting aspect of the textile fractal (See box below) pattern was noted by the famous mathematician anthropologist, Dr. Ron Eglash: "The weavers who created it report that spiritual energy is woven into the pattern and that each successive iteration shows an increase in this energy," "Releasing this spiritual energy is dangerous, and if the weavers were to stop in the middle they would risk death. The engaged couple must bring the weaver food and kola nuts to keep him awake until it is finished." African Fractals Fractals are characterized by the repetition of similar patterns at ever-diminishing scales. Fractal geometry has emerged as one of the most exciting frontiers on the border between mathematics and information technology and can be seen in many of the swirling patterns produced by computer graphics. It has become a new tool for modeling in biology, geology, and other natural sciences.Anthropologists have observed that the patterns produced in different cultures can be characterized by specific design themes. In Europe and America, we often see cities laid out in a grid pattern of straight streets and right-angle corners. In contrast, traditional African settlements tend to use fractal structure--circles of circles of circular dwellings, rectangular walls enclosing ever-smaller rectangles, and streets in which broad avenues branch down to tiny footpaths with striking geometric repetition. These indigenous fractals are not limited to architecture; their recursive patterns echo throughout many disparate African designs and knowledge systems including : traditional hairstyling, textiles, sculpture, painting, carving, metalwork, religion, games, practical craft, quantitative technologies, and symbolic systems. By Dr. Ron Eglash Habitat and architecture The habitat ranges from simple temporary huts to elaborate structures. Generally nomadic Fulani women, who often are in charge of building the family tents or temporary shelters, weave wall and floor mats. However, many houses and even large buildings are built from mud bricks with mudplastered walls. Larger structures, such as mosques have wooden s built into them. The s stick out, giving the appearance

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of spines. The habitat ranges from simple temporary huts to elaborate structures. Generally nomadic Fulani women, who often are in charge of building the family tents or temporary shelters, weave wall and floor mats. However, many houses and even large buildings are built from mud bricks with mud-plastered walls. Larger structures, such as mosques have wooden s built into them. The s stick out, giving the appearance of spines. The most famous mud building is the mosque at Djenne, a town built on an island in the Niger river. The current mosque was built on an old site in the early 1900s. Calabash Decoration and Wood carving Gourds or Calabashes whether decorated or not, basically fulfill practical functions in the daily activities of the Fulani family. Cut into contains of various shapes and sizes, they are used for serving foods and drinks, for milking cattle and are carriers vessels. However, the decorated ones have additional value. They are highly prized objects of prestigious and aesthetic value. Used has containers for food and drink they embellish the service; as tools in the thereby performing some economic functions. They are also an extension of the seller's appearance. Calabashes are engraved with a combination of abstract and figural motifs and colored with pigments. In the cow-centered Fulani culture, milk bowls are also important objects for the household. They are used as storage containers for fresh, curdled milk and grains. An artifact, symbol of the pastoral life and of the cooperation between men who keep the herd and women who milk the cows, the la'al kosam encapsulates Fulani identity. Because of their delicate chiseling, smoke-derived patina, and exquisite decorative treatment, bowls and calabashes could be considered as the true focus of aesthetic efforts of the Fulani people. The decorations on the calabashes are the Fulani only graphic expressions, the truest representation of the artistic skill and vision. Wooden masks and figures are not widespread in Fulani society. However The caste of lawbe is specialized in woodcarving. They make elaborate figurines and furniture which they sell in the tourist market. West Africa is home to many master wood carvers. They use simple hand tools to produce incredible works of art. Wood carvings are hand crafted from ebony or other hard wood trees. Ebony is an exceptionally hard and beautiful wood found in the Sahara desert regions of Africa. Its exceptional density makes it not only very heavy, but also gives it an incomparable sheen when polished. Ebony normally is brown on the outside of the tree; and black on the inside.The carvings often come as a beautiful mixture of black and brown; as well as the pure black wood that is most well known. Each has its own special beauty. Like any wood, ebony is subject to drying and cracking: especially in dry climates

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Brass Artwork All brass items are made of solid brass using the Lost Wax Method. This is an exceptionally labor intensive process where a wax mold is formed by hand, over an open fire until the mold is exactly as intended. The wax is then dipped into very fine powdered mud several times; being allowed to harden between applications; this forms a clay casting around the mold. The clay is then heated until the wax melts and is poured out of its casting. Finally, molten brass is poured into the casting replacing the old wax mold. The clay is then broken away from the brass; leaving a solid brass ornament. Each piece is individually made. No two are exactly the same because the mold is broken in the process of making the piece. These will retain their original brilliant look indefinitely as each work is solid brass; not just plated. Pottery In many African societies, Pottery is used for many functions from household use to ritual practices. Cultural stability and the environment determine most of the time the type of pottery used by one culture. Fulani pottery styles are characterized by very recognized decorations. In the Fulani society, a special caste called Maabube do the actual fabrication of the pot. There is a considerable variation in the shape, the concavity, and the neck and rim forms. Because they are difficult to handle the pots have short life expectancies and the large majority are transported within short distances, making their production localize and their distribution limited Paintings Apart from such crafts as Jewelry making, bronze-casting, wood carving, leather work, pottery and weaving, a form of artistic expression that has quietly gained a stronghold but has not been given its due recognition in Fulani painting. As a medium of artistic expression, painting is not completely new in the country.The two groups of rock paintings in parts of Sahara Tassi

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Najjer are the attributed to Fulani. Body paintings and decoration for ceremonial rites and festivals are also a common practice . The designs and decorations used in body painting possess esoteric connotations and the human body so painted at times in varied contours, visually becomes a really beautiful "living art piece". Another form of artistic expression closely akin to painting that has been in practice for a long time is the multicolored decoration of the inner and outer walls of houses with beautiful and elaborate symbols and designs. Some of such designs have their origin in the Islamic influence . Since Islam forbids representation Human and Animal forms, Fulani sculpture and wood carving is not as developed as in other cultures such as Dogon and Benin. Those who have gained prominence at home and abroad in this field within a relatively short time include Kalidou Kasse and Sow A large number of the works of Modern Fulani painters can be found in many galleries and private collections in Africa and elsewhere. Looking at art as the umbilical cord between men and their culture, Kalidou Kasse has been called the brush of the Sahel, painting pictures that have been exhibited in , USA, , Egypt. See Slides show pictures(lvre 32) Literature The African Oral Tradition (see box below: African Orature) is one of narration, poetry, proverbs, jokes and riddles. Most of Fulani literature is and remains oral. The Griots told of the achievement of the braves. Fulanis are fond of oral poetry, saying in rims stories, riddles and proverbs. The most striking aspect of Fulani oral poetry is its rhythm. Indeed, rhythm is the most important defining characteristic of African poetry: It is its very essence. The skillful use of numerous linguistic resources in this poetry is obscured in English, which is insufficiently flexible to convey many of the verbal and aesthetic nuances of the Fulani originals. In any case, the poet is as indispensable to Fulani society as any other individual. Steward and artisan of the word, crystallizer of the people's collective memory, eulogist of the ancestors' noble deeds and exploits, he remains the genuine promoter of cultural and social values.Source: Sow, Abdoul Aziz. Fulani Poetic Genres.(Special Issue: Oral Literature) Research in African Literatures 24.2(Summer 1993): 61(17pp). Full text available at COCC: Infotrac 2000 Expanded Academic ASAP Article A13891469. On the other hand Fulani writers preferred to write in Arabic. However, when the European languages were introduced during the colonial period, many African authors including Fulani began writing in French, English, Spanish, or Portuguese. In 1950, Amadou Hampate

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published his Peul poetry in French. Cheikh Hamidou Kane wrote the much celebrated Adventure Ambigue in 1961. Fulani Poetic Genres. Abstract: The Fulani people of the northern Senegal River have songs which fit poetic genres. There are different songs for fishermen, weavers, warriors, hunters, cattle drivers, women griots, merchants, nomad entertainment, shepherds, lullabies, eulogies, rejoicing, mockery and special occasions. As elsewhere in Africa, literature among the Fulani is essentially oral and musical. It is lyrical, and it is by its very nature literary, as is every word that transcends the merely denotative or communicative functions of language. Sung, chanted, declaimed, recited, set to rhythm, or ed by gestural or musical accompaniment, it is magnified to the status of art - a verbal art so pure and so complete that writing, far from assuring its diffusion, merely impoverishes and weakens it by restricting its range of expression (Seydou 178) [qtd. by Sow]. The most striking aspect of Fulani oral poetry is its rhythm. Indeed, rhythm is the most important defining characteristic of African poetry: It is its very essence. The skillful use of numerous linguistic resources in this poetry is obscured in English, which is insufficiently flexible to convey many of the verbal and aesthetic nuances of the Fulani originals. In any case, the poet is as indispensable to Fulani society as any other individual. Steward and artisan of the word, crystallizer of the people's collective memory, eulogist of the ancestors' noble deeds and exploits, he remains the genuine promoter of cultural and social values.By: Sow, Abdoul Aziz. Fulani Poetic Genres. Research in African Literatures 24.2 (Summer 1993): 61 (17 pp). Rpt. Infotrac 2000 Expanded Academic ASAP: Article A13891469. For more information about Fulani Litterature click here African Orature African ORATURE Ancient writing traditions exist on the African continent, as shown earlier in this timeline, but most Africans are primarily oral peoples, and their art forms primarily oral rather than literary.. In contrast to written "literature," African "orature" is orally composed and transmitted, and often created to be verbally and communally performed as integral part of dance and music. Oral arts and traditions of Africa are rich and varied, developing with the beginnings of African cultures, and continuing to flourish today.Power of the World: In traditional African cosmologies, the spoken/performed word animating the creative process, is considered to have special powers to evoke spiritual and communal forces and ferment inner life. African oral arts often combine religious, artistic as well as social functions: e.g., to convey wisdom, teach ethics and social codes of conduct; teach religious beliefs and communal values, celebrate cultural

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heroes and revered ancestors, & explain the origins, history, and development of states, clans, and other important social organizations. Mutere calls African oral arts art for life sake.Dr. Mutere's African Culture and Aesthetics.

Dance and Music What ever the tribal or ethnic group, Music and Dance forms are at the centre of all African arts and culture. Music plays an integral role in the celebration of life's many rituals and accompanies everyday activities. The Fulani music is as varied and rich as its people. The numerous sub-groups all maintain unique repertoires of music and dance. Songs and dances reflect traditional life and are specifically designed for each individual occasion. Music is played at any occasion: when herding cattle, working in the fields, preparing food, or at the temple. Music is extremely important to the village life cycle with field cultivation,harvest and winnowing of millet performed to the rhythm of the songs and drums. Fulani herders have a special affinity for the flute and violin Nianioru. The young Fulani shepherd like to whistle and sing softly as they wander the silent savannah with cattle and goats. The well known tunes include: Lele made popular by Samba Diop, Yela sung by women at the drum of Gourds, and the more recent wango dance. The truly Fulani instruments are the 1 string viola of the Fulani (nianioru), the flute, the two to five string lute hoddu or molo, and the buuba and bawdi set of drums. But they are also influenced by the other instruments of the region such as the beautiful West African harp, the kora, the balafon. Entertainment is the role of certain casts. The performance of music is the realm of specialized casts. The Griots Awlube recite history of the people, places and events of the community. Steward and artisan of the word, crystallizer of the people's collective memory, eulogist of the ancestors' noble deeds and exploits, griots are the genuine promoter of cultural and social values. Wambaabe are expert virtuosos in string instruments. Apart from the griots, and wambaabe, other casts such as the blacksmith caste (Wailuube) are masters of the drums especially the talking drum.Though not preeminent in nomadic Fulanis, drum buuba is played at all occasion in more settled Fulani societies.. Certain buuba instruments can even talk by imitating the tonal patterns characteristic of the language Traditional lines are being blurred by modern mobility and changes. Nowadays, Music and

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dance are performed by all segments of the society, the motivation being no longer cast but talent. Modern Musicians There is a growing numbers of famous Fulani musician know all over the world. They include Baba Maal, Demba Dia, Aisha Khalil Baba Maal is one of African pop musician. Maal produced great traditional records, notably Baayo (Mango 1991), his band releases never quite earned him the media spotlight. The magic of Baba Maal's exceptional musicality lies in its combination of delicate acoustic sounds--principally plucked string instruments from the 21-string kora to a French folk harp--and ballsy electric pop. Maal's sharp, gale-force voice easily cuts through all this, keening and caressing by turns, but never lost in the action.Malick Sow Musician :Welnere Founder Welnere ( = happiness in pulaar) was founded by Malick in Brussels in 1995 with three goals : be a link between the various hapulaar (peuls or fulani) communities in Europe, let the european public become more familiar with hapulaar music from the Senegal river and eventually bring back to Africa a new music, being the crossbreed of african and european influences Welnere is becoming increasingly famous in Europe (Belgium, , the Netherlands, Switzerland, Italy, etc.) and has released in August 98 it's debut CD "Danniyanke" on the new Yoff label, which has been founded by Baaba Maal and Jumbo Vanrenen. Reviews of the CD have been excellent, especially in the specialized press (World, Le Disque Africain).

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Origins Some believe that they are from a Semitic origin. According to the tradition, the ancestors of Fulani is Jacob son of Israel, son of Issac, son of Abraham When Jacob left Canaan and went to Egypt where Joseph was established. The Israelites prospered and grew in population while living in Egypt. Fulani people descended from them. After a long time a new Pharaoh who did not know about Joseph's fame in Egypt, came to power. He made the Israelites work hard at slave labor. The Pharaoh oppressed the people, including Fulanis who were rich in cattle. They emigrated from Egypt, some of them went back to Palestine and Syria under Moses guidance and the other crossed the Nile with their cattle and headed west. They took the name of fouth or foudh meaning those who left. A group from the latter moved along the edges of the Sahara to Touat-Air and then to West-Africa. Those who came to Masina (in present day Mali) spread to the neighboring regions where they were reed by Fulani groups from Morocco. It has established that about 700AD, Fulani groups from Morocco, moved southward, and invaded the regions of Tagout, Adrar, Mauritania, and Fuuta Tooro. The cradle of the Fulani group is situated in the Senegal River valley, where Fulanis established kingdoms. Until the beginning of the IX th Century..Around that period they continued their migration in the regions of Bundu, Bambouk, Diomboko, Kaarta, and Bagana Finally those who where concentrated in the Ferlo from the XI to the XIV century moved in various groups to the Fuuta Jalon, to the Volta river basin , to the Gurma, to the Haussa land, and to the Adamawa, Boghirme,Ouadai Other versions of the Fulani origin include: a- The mixing between the proto-Berber from North Africa, and the Bafur (the people who populated the Sahara) b- Issued from Asiatic pastoral tribes that invaded Africa, crossed the Sahara and dispersed through all the West-Africa Sahalian zone c-

The Anthropologists declare that the study of many Fulbe cranian structure has indicated that they are intimately linked to the Ethiopians and that both types are very similar to the Egyptian crane structure. According to the eminent Anthropologist Mr. Verneau, the Fulbe origin has to closely link the Egypt.

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Genesis The History section examines the topics relevant to the Fulani Historical experience. It describes their uncertain Origins, the impact of Islam, Colonization, Slavery and the Diaspora on their culture. Some Fulani Historical Figures are also described including: Usman Dan Fodio, Umar Talll, A. Bamba, el-hadj Malik Sy, M.Diakhou Ba, Alpha Yaya, Bocar Biro, Lamidho Bayero, Alpha Mamadou Diobbo, Sr. A. Bello, A Ahidjo. The overall historical Time line of Fulani people is shown below. The History section examines the topics relevant to the Fulani Historical experience. It describes their uncertain Origins, the impact of Islam, Colonization, Slavery and the Diaspora on their culture. Some Fulani Historical Figures are also described including: Usman Dan Fodio, Umar Talll, A. Bamba, el-hadj Malik Sy, M.Diakhou Ba, Alpha Yaya, Bocar Biro, Lamidho Bayero, Alpha Mamadou Diobbo, Sr. A. Bello, A Ahidjo. The overall historical Time line of Fulani people is shown below. Origin The early origin of Fulani People is most fascinating and shrowed in mystery with widely divergent opinions. However, it is generally recognized that Fulani descended from nomads from both North Africa and from sub-Sahara Africa. They came from the Middle-East and North Africa and settled into Central and West Africa From the Senegal region they created the Tekruur empire which was contemporary to the Ghana empire. Then, they spread in all the countries in West-Africa, continuing to lead their nomadic life style. They created here and there mixed states where they sometimes were the dominant group. But more often, they were absorbed by the indigenous population whom they had dominated. Early European Commentaries on Fulani Origins Date

Observer

Situation

Fulbe Observer's claims claims

residence in Senegal

1785-7

Golbéry

1790s

Winterbottom journey to and Arab Futa Jalon Matthews

1818

Mollien

1824,1826 Clapperton

journey to Futas and Arab Bundu journeys to

Arab, Uqba

Reference

India

Tauxier, 29, 109-10

JudaeoSyrian

Tauxier, 29

from Sahara

Voyage, 162-3 Second ExPedition,

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Northern Nigeria

337-8

1826

Lander

journey to Arab, eastern Northern Uqba origin Nigeria

1840s

d'Eichtal

synthesis, from Arab Europe

1842-3

Thomson

residence in Futa

1846-7

Raffenel

journey to Arab , Karta Uqba

Nouveau voyage, 11, 310

Hecquard

journey to Futa jalon Arab & Bundu

Voyage, 314

1851-5

Barth

journey through Centr. Sudan

1850s

Wilson

missionary in Gambia

1860

Lambert

journey to Arabs Futa Jalon of Fez

1850

1912

Arab

Arab

'Foulahs CMS Archives

distant eastern origin son of Ham

Travels III, 110-15 Western Africa, 79 Voyage, 40-1

journey across North and West Africa

eastern origin, Hamitic

Timbouctou, 11, 266-77

Binger

journey across West Africa

eastern origin

Niger, 1, 390-3

Delafosse

French colon. official

JudaeoSyrian

Haut-SénégalNiger. 1, 207

1879-81 Lenz

1887-9

Malaysian or son of Ham

Last Expedition, 11, 24-6

Arab

Note: For references, see bibliography. Tauxier refers to Louis Tauxier, 1937 Moeurs et histoire des Peuls, Payot. 1935 - Les races de l'Afrique, -TAUXIER (L.)

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Early history Archeologists have found stone tools indicating a human presence dating back over 10,000 years in Fulani regions, such as present-day Senegal and the Gambia. They have also found clusters of stone circles, (See Gambia Stone Circles in file fototraite) some nearly 2,000 years old that probably had religious significance. Archeologists have also found iron-smelting sites dating to the 4th century C.E., indicating the development of me Tallworking skills among the region's people. By this time speakers of West Atlantic languages (which belong to the larger Niger-Congo family of languages) had probably settled in West Africa. The late Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop discovered linguistic and cultural similarities with ancient Egypt, indicating that most of West African people had migrated from the Nile River valley. The development of metal working technology by the 4th century C.E. may have contributed to the rise of the region's first centralized state, the Tekruur kingdom in the Senegal River valley. This kingdom stretched across the central savanna into the Sahara to the north. Tekruur, who was mostly populated by Fulani, had extensive with peoples from North Africa, including the Zenaga Berbers. After their conversion to Islam beginning in the 8th century C.E., Berbers brought Islam to Senegambia. The Zenaga founded a monastery, probably along the Senegal River, around 1040. This hermitage housed an ascetic Islamic sect known as the Almoravids who swept north and, over the course of the century, conquered Morocco and established a Muslim kingdom in Spain. The sect's leader, 'Abd Allah ibn Yasin, converted the Tekruur king, War Jabi, and many of the Fulani people to Islam. During the 13th century, as Tekruur fell under the dominance of the Mali empire to the east. Later on through nomadic life styles and holy wars, Fulani expanded their living range further east to Fuuta Jalon, Macina, Bhundu, to Adamawa.

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Versions of Fulani Origins Ethnologists and others have been provoked to seek the origins of the Fulani far outside their present habitat, in remote periods and states of society, and to describe the successive migrations which are supposed to have brought them into their present habitat before documentary evidence from the West and Central Africa became available. Considerable ethnological debate has surrounded the widely divergent hypotheses of the origin of the Fulani. Tauxier (1937) lists the majority of these.



    

Jewish or Syrian origin and suggested a migration westwards along the North African littoral, southwards into the West-Africa and, thence, in historical times, eastwards. According to Some writers (e.g. Guiraudon, 1888; Delafosse, 1912; Morel, 1902) Ethiopian affinities and inferred a prehistoric movement westward from Ethiopia into the West- Africa. According to Mollien, 1820; Seligman, 1930; Barth, 1857-8 Fulani were North African Berbers, According to. arge, 1895; Meyer, 1897; Crozals, 1883 Compromised between the Berber and Ethiopian theories. According to Bayol, 1887; Machat, 1906; Gautier, 1935; Palmer, 1923, 1928, 1936) which Hindu Origins According toGolberry, 1805; Binger, 1892), MalayoPolynesian (EichTall, 1841 Gypsy theories complete the list of elaborate surmises on Fulani origins

The myths of the Fulani themselves do little to confirm hypotheses linking them with events of the Classical or Near Eastern world. They often describe the marriage of a Muslim Arab or Moor with a negro-African woman which is blessed with children. One infant is left in the care of an elder brother while their mother goes to draw water. It cries and is comforted by its brother in an incomprehensible language which the mother overhears on her return. She runs to tell the father, who takes this as a sign, predicted by the Prophet, that the child will be the founder of a new people who do not speak Arabic, but will be the saviors of Islam. This child is the ancestor of the Fulani. In some versions his brothers learn the new language, Fulfulde, from him and found the four great branches of the Fulani people. In all its versions

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(e.g. Madrolle, 1885; de St. Croix, 1944) this myth relates the racial affinities of the Fulani, their linguistic peculiarities, and their historical role in the West-Africa. A common version of the Origin of Fulani common version (de St. Croix, 1944; Stephani, 1912) runs somewhat as follows. The first Fulani to own cattle is expelled from a Fulani settlement. The context of this expulsion is not stated. He wanders alone in the bush, enduring great hardship. A water spirit appears and tells him that if he obeys his orders he will acquire great wealth and be the envy of those who despised him. In one version he waters all the wild animals in turn, until finally, in reward for his exertions, the spirit sends him cattle to water. In another version the Fulani is ened to wait patiently by a lake until the source of his future wealth appears. The water spirit then tells him to lead the cattle away and never to fail to light a fire for them at dusk, lest they revert to their wild state and leave him. The settled Fulani despise the nomad and pour ridicule upon his harsh way of life. But he takes a wife from them, and his progeny are eventually able to pursue their pastoral existence without intermarriage with those who spurned their ancestor. While explaining and justifying the way of life of the cattle-owning Fulani, this myth retails a stereotype of the relations of Pastoral and sedentary Fulani. The search for the origins of the Fulani was based on racial and linguistic criteria, and attempts were made to link these with Classical, Biblical, and Near Eastern history. Mass Migration Although the details of these migrations may be open to doubt, their general sense is quite clear. The general mass movement of the Fulani (known by one or other of their various names) within the West-Africa has been from Senegal eastwards. The periods at which stages of this movement were accomplished are not so clear. It appears that the exodus of the Fulani from the kingdom of Tekruur in Senegal occurred in the eleventh century A.D. (Delafosse, 1912). It is clear that by the time of the rise of the Fulani Muslim States in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the Fulani formed more or less substantial minorities in the various regions in which their Holy Wars were fought, since these were in no case invasions, but insurrections. Since that period, largely owing to the pacification of hitherto inaccessible areas by colonial istrations, Fulani have penetrated farther into areas such as

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the Jos Plateau in Nigeria and parts of British and French Cameroons. It may be concluded that the present distribution of the Fulani was more or less completed during a period of at most eight hundred years. There is little doubt that the main impetus of this vast ethnic movement was provided by the pastoral elements of the population. The transhumance systems of the Pastoral Fulani have probably always been of a conservative nature, involving close knowledge of the grazing potentialities of relatively limited tracts of country. The independence of the simple or compound family with its own herd has militated against the formation of extended kinship groups having well-defined grazing and water rights in specific tracts which might be defended by force. Thus herds have been maintained, not by cattle-raiding, feud, and war, but by the continuous adjustment of transhumance patterns to subtle changes of an ecological nature. The resultant movement may be described as migratory drift, and it is this type of movement which s for the spread of Pastoral Fulani populations. Indeed, Pastoral Fulani have always formed minorities within wider societies, and intolerable political conditions within these have been countered by a more dramatic form of movement migration from the scene of war, excessive tribute, and the like. Pastoral Fulani have remained pastoralists, in the sense we have described, only by continuous seasonal movement, which develops imperceptibly into migratory drift, and by periodic migration. They have left behind them Fulani populations more closely wedded to the soil, the semi-sedentary and sedentary populations. Islam The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) began preaching in Mecca Saudi Arabia. After his death in 632.

Islam grew, and little by little reached lands far from Arabia in Asia, Europe, and Africa. Islam spread in West - Africa through commerce. Timbuktu, Jenne, and Gao in present day Mali became great cities of commerce. Both as a sedentary and as a nomadic people, Fulanis have played an important part in the history of West- Africa. A number of West-African kingdoms and empires had strong Fulani influence. The Fulani became Muslims in approximately the 11th cententury AD. With the Almoravids they conquered lands all the way to Southern Spain and destroyed the Empire of Ghana. From 1750 to 1900 they engaged in many holy wars in the name of Islam. During the first part of the19th century the Fulani carved out two important empires. One, based on Massina, for a time controlled Timbuktu; the other, centered at Sokoto , included the Hausa States and parts of Bornu and W Cameroon. The Fulani emir of Sokoto continued to rule over part of Northern Nigeria until the British conquest in 1903.

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Islam and Fulani Many West African Empires have endured for centuries, while, others were short-lived. Cities were established, and within their walls were to be found not only the pomp of the king's court and the splendor of his military power, but also more peaceful manifestations of urban culture. Some cities became centers of Islamic learning. Most displayed considerable diversity in their arts and crafts, whose practitioners were organized into guilds under the king's patronage. Many were commercially important, not only gathering into their markets the produce of the surrounding countryside, but also maintaining a far-flung caravan trade with other West African cities and with commercial centers on the opposite Maghrebine shore of the sand sea which is the Sahara. Many of the urban populations of the West- Africa could truly be called cosmopolitan. The city was the nodal point of the State, which more often than not was described by the city's name. Surrounding it to a greater or lesser depth was the city's countryside, from which produce was drawn and to which the city's products percolated. Within this area, as in the city itself, the affluence of the State was maintained by the arts of peaceful istration, in the levying of all manner of tolls and taxes, the quid-pro quo of which was effective defense. Still farther out was the zone entrusted to governors who, though often residing in the city, were responsible for the defense of its various, sectors, and the safeguarding of such trade routes as ed through them. Here public istration was manifest not in tax, but in tribute, collected from populations only loosely bound to the State. The affluence of the State did not depend solely on the maintenance of a vigorous internal and external trade, fostered by peaceful conditions. Apart from the trade in gold, salt, and diverse consumer goods, one of the principal resources of the WestAfrica was its human material, in the form of slaves. These were sought in a more distant zone outside the governors' domains, which was a no-man'sland between one State and the next. In the Islamic era in the West Africa, these zones assumed a dual importance and the activities of States in them had an ideological as well as an economic impetus. They lay outside Dar-elIslam, the Community of the Faithful; their populations were either to be subdued and converted and thus brought into the web of Muslim State istration. Thus on the States' peripheries the art of government merged into the art of war. Where the territorial interests of one State collided with those of its neighbor, the slave-raiding column became an instrument of aggression. Here too, ideological reasons were brought to bear, and accusations of backsliding in the faith were used as justifications for extending territorial claims.

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Islamic Expansion in West Africa The State was thus committed to a ceaseless course of expansion; trade had to be guaranteed and tax and tribute levied in order to further military endeavors in the name of Islam, which, if successful, brought not only new wealth but also new istrative problems. This expansion was facilitated by geographical and technological considerations. The savannah zone of the West- Africa rarely affords natural barriers upon which a frontier line can be established. The horse was widely used in warfare and made possible military formations of great mobility. It was therefore not surprising that, in periods of affluence, the nominal boundaries far outran the area which could be effectively istered, and that in periods of adversity the periphery of the State was quickly overrun. Moreover, at all points in the territorial organization of the State a strong governing hand was required. At the centre, in the city, there were the inevitable court intrigues; merchants with diverse and distant connections; peripatetic Muslim preachers and holy men. In the countryside the pagans were always seeking to avoid taxation. In the governors' domains, military forces at the disposal of local commanders might be indispensable to the State, but were equally likely to be used against the ruler. Here, too, the tribute paying populations might be of diverse ethnic origins, with their own local traditions and religions, eager to regain a semblance of autonomy, and willing to ally them with any power that would help them. Outward again, the no-man's-land was the home not only of pagan tribes jealous of their time-hallowed customs, but also of bands of freebooters, selling their services at will.

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Conquests: Fuuta Jalon, Fuuta Tooro, Massina. Soko Muslims scholars called sub-Sahara Africa Bilal al Sudan (Land of the blacks) within the Dar al-Islam (the realm of Islam). Indeed, many West African Empires and kingdoms that have endured for centuries began to witness during the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, far reaching reformist movements that redrew the West African historical setting and were only halted with the arrival of the European Colonization. All the leaders of these movements were Fulani from various regions of WestAfrica. These leaders/scholars mobilized herders and farmers from the Fulani as well as from other ethnic groups to launch holy wars and to establish formidable Islamic states in little more than 100 years.This expansion was facilitated by geographical and technological considerations. The savannah zone of the West- Africa rarely presents natural barriers upon which a frontier line can be established. The horse was widely used in warfare and made possible military formations of great mobility. Cities were established as istrative capital, but also centers of Islamic learning. Most displayed considerable diversity in their arts and crafts.The city was the nodal point of the State. In the countryside, as well as in the city itself, the affluence of the State was maintained by the arts of peaceful istration, in the levying of all manner of tolls and taxes.

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Fuuta Jalon

The most spectacular contribution to the history of West Africa was the Fulani creation of Muslim States. These Muslim States arose within a century in widely separated parts of the West Africa, and at one juncture, before the arrival of the French and English Colonizers, it seemed likely that they would be united under a single leader Umar Saidu Tall. The first movement occurred in Fuuta Jalon (present day Guinea), the second in Fuuta Toro (present day Senegal), the third in Masina (present day Mali) and finally the most notable the Sokoto Caliphate (present day Nigeria, Cameroon). During the seventeenth century this well endowed highland area was the scene of a considerable immigration of Fulani pastoralists who, although of different clans, were all Muslims of the Kadiriya persuasion. In 1725 a Muslim Fulani known as Alfa Ba put himself at their head and declared a Holy War not only against the pagan Sosso and Mandingo inhabitants but also against the pagan Fulani dynasty which ruled the country. Alfa Ba died during the course of preparations for the Holy War, but his son, a holy man, known as Ibrahim mo Timbo or Karamoko Alfa, continued his work with the aid of a war leader, Ibrahim Sori. They conquered and converted by force all except the least accessible parts of the country and established a territorial organization which, although much modified, is the basis of present-day istration.

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Futa Toro

The second Muslim Fulani State was Fuuta Tooro, which, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, had been ruled by a pagan Fulani dynasty, the Denianke. In 1776 the Muslim Fulani minority rose under Abdel-Kadr Toorodi and established the Muslim State. In Fuuta Tooro there was little of the internal dissension seen in Fuuta Jalon. Abdel-Kadr had both preached and waged war, and his kingdom consisted of provinces under the rule of Muslim divines. The State expanded after the death of Abd-el-Kadr in 1788 and its dependencies in the Senegambia region Dimar, Damga, and Boundou, were in situ on the arrival of the French. Masina

The Bamana kingdom of Masina was the scene of the creation of the next Muslim Fulani kingdom. Masina is a region located in central Mali and northern Burkina Faso. Here the Muslim Fulani had for long been tributaries of the Bamana.Following the collapse of Songhai Empire in 1591 by the armies of al-Mansur of Morocco number of small kingdoms Masina, Gonja, Segou, Kaarta strove to dominate the western Mali, but continual strife and economic decline were the only results. In 1818 Seku Ahmadu, a Fulani

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Muslim introduced a theocratic state in Macina. During his rule an empire embracing the whole of the Niger River region, from Jenne to Timbuktu, was created. Upon his death in 1844 his son took power, but in 1862 Macina fell to another Muslim reformer, al-Hajj Umar. Masina saw the achievements of great leaders such as Ahmad Al-Kabir, Ahmad Al-Tijani, and the Kunta leader Ahmad Al-Bakkay.Many cities flourished including Jenne, Nioro and Hamdallay.Hamdallay is a now shadow of what it used to be during the glory days of masina.Prior to the arrival of the French when Segou was powerful and practicing traditional religion, Hamdallay was the center of the Fulani's emerging Masina Islamic Empire and a center of Islamic education at the time. Currently it is not even labeled on most maps.(More about Masina in Communities Section)

Sokoto Caliphate

The greatest feat of empire-building on the part of the Fulani was the Jihad of Usman dan Fodio, who established a widespread empire in what, is now Northern Nigeria, both founding new States and usurping the rule of the oldestablished Hausa kingdoms. The mixing of pagan with Muslim practices and other errors disquieted Nafata, king of Gobir, who, although formerly a pupil of Usman's, saw in these activities a threat to his position at the centre of the pagan rites of kingship. Before his death, Nafata made proclamations designed to restrict the effect of Usman's efforts. His son Yunfa was more energetic and in 1803 attacked Gimbana, an important Muslim village, destroying the scribes' writings and carrying off their wives and children. In February 1804 Usman declared a Hegira or Flight from Degel, which was a demonstration of defiance of the constituted government. It took the Muslim leader into an ill-istered part of the kingdom, from which messages might be sent to Fulani communities urging them to the instigator of the rising, and from which the first deployments of insurrection might be made. Usman was speedily ed in his flight by a considerable number of fervent ers. In June 1804 Usman met Yunfa in battle at Kwotto lake and defeated him. The victorious Muslim army proclaimed Usman Commander of the Faithful (Arab. Amir al Muminin; Hausa Serkin Musulmi; Ful. Laamiidho Julbhe) and he was thenceforth known as Sheik or Shehu. He declared Holy

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War against the enemies of Islam and, in the next decade or so, Shehu, or his son and successor Bello, gave the flag of Holy War to trusted followers who took existing kingdoms by insurrection or carved out new ones by war. Usman himself retired early to a life of contemplation, and is revered to this day as a saint. By 1810 four of the seven Hausa States were taken by the Fulani, and the city of Sokoto, from which the Empire was to be governed, had been established. During the next twenty years, Fulani dynasties were set up in other States, principally Ilorin and Nupe. During the same period new kingdoms were established, chief among which was Adamawa. On the eastern borders of the Empire developments took place with which we shall be more concerned later in the text. Bornu resisted the Fulani invaders, but in large portions of its western territory small kingdoms, such as Hadeijia, Katagum, Bauchi, Misau, and Gombe, were established by the Fulani. The history of the Fulani States during the nineteenth century is one of attempts at expansion and internecine strife, which neither the military power of the suzerain State of Sokoto nor the religious authority of its ruler were able to compose. Nevertheless, on their arrival in Northern Nigeria, the British recognized the legitimacy by conquest of the Fulani rulers, and the present Emirs of the States are for the most part the descendants of the flag-bearers of the Jihad.

Dinguiray, Segou, Nioro & Bandiagara

The final movement of Fulani Islam was the rise of Umar Saidu Tall. He was born in 1797 into a family of holy men of Podor in Senegal. He went on the pilgrimage in 1827 and studied in Mecca, Medina, and Cairo. He returned to the West- Africa in 1838 and was well received in Bornu, Sokoto, and Massina. The Fulani rulers of Sokoto and Massina gave him their daughters in marriage. He attempted to seize power in Fuuta Tooro but was unsuccessful, although he succeeded in raising followers prepared to preach the Holy War elsewhere. He moved to Dinguiray in Fuuta Jalon, which he established as a fortress and centre of learning. He led a Holy War in the Bambouk country and by 1861 had established his son as king of Masina. Under his hand, Nioro,

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Bandiagara, and Segou became important religious centers. He was seen as the potential unifier of all the Muslim Fulani empires and States of the WestAfrica. However, in 1857 he was stopped at Khosso by the French colonial power. Holy Men Role of Holy Men Muslim holy men are a special breed of specialists in Islam. They hold a particular place in the Fulani society. Many of these Holy men go on to become leaders or spiritual guide with a large following. Their specialization comes from their knowledge of Quran and Hadith. It also alludes to a special relation with the higher power which is manifest in their possession of sanctity (barka or baraka) a term common to many West- African Islamic groups and to the Berber dialects of Maghrebine North Africa. Sanctity may be inherited genealogically, or acquired from one's teachers. Ultimately, barka derives from Allah himself, through the Prophet and his Companions. Holy men may belong to one or other of the Islamic fraternities Kadiriya, Tijaniya, Mahdiya, and Murids etc, which ramify throughout the West- Africa. Holy men live on the fees, obtained by the performance of their special tasks, which have the quality of alms for the Muslim donor. But many also have farms, or are craftsmen or traders. They may work alone in a community or they may form hamlets, around which they farm, and from which they travel in pursuit of their calling. The term holy man covers many degrees of proficiency in magic, Islamic ritual, law, and tradition, but in general the status of a holy man depends upon his ability to read the Arabic of Koranic texts and such Maghrebine writings as are copied and circulated in the West- Africa. Some holy men are little more than magicians or diviners, fashioning amulets, making decoctions of the ink in which pious texts have been written, manipulating sand patterns, or telling the stars. Others have received a more extensive grounding in Muslim ritual and dogma after years of study by rote in a Koranic school. In addition to practicing as magicians and diviners, they may instruct others in the niceties of religious observance, or officiate at naming ceremonies, weddings, and funerals. They may compose disputes by recourse to the principles of Islamic law as they understand them. They may acquaint their listeners with details of the lives of Islamic divines who have attained sainthood, and whose tombs they have visited. Yet others achieve a wider fame after making the pilgrimage, studying in Cairo, or traveling between West- African centers of learning. They establish their own followings and schools, with whose they have a continuing bond wherever they may be. Each holy man has his own sphere of influence, proportional, we may say, to his barka. As we shall see, in the past, Muslim divines had great influence in the States of the West- Africa, converting princes, reforming systems of istration, and, in the last resort, leading popular uprisings. Men of this caliber are today found in high istrative or judicial posts, their Tallents

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curbed, perhaps, by the demands of European government. Their religious zeal, we may rest assured, is no less fervent. Others remain in the background, maintaining their links with the Islamic Middle East, leading their fraternities, and encouraging the dissemination of their doctrines. Yet others have a more restricted sphere of action in the towns and country districts, continually transmitting by precept and example the fund of Islamic learning, the observance of its rites, and the rudiments of its law. Finally we come to the holy man of the village the scene of compromise and the amalgamation of Islamic popular beliefs and practices with those of pagan origin and sometimes of Christian dissemination. Their efforts at proselytism are, at best, circumscribed by their own narrow vision; or, at worst, merely batten on the credulity of those who seek their aid. But whatever their accomplishments or fields of activity the holy men are the spearheads, blunt or keen, of an Islam which is distinctively WestAfrican. The Rise Fulani Tooroobhe But in affirming the importance of the pastoralists in dispersing communities of Fulani throughout WestAfrica, the role of holy men of Fulani descent should not be minimized. They served to crystallize these groups into self-conscious communities which later became the nuclei of Fulani States. For the pastoralists the savannah grassland of the West- Africa was a vast potential grazing ground. For the holy men it was a field of missionary and reformist endeavor among the courts of pagan and Muslim rulers no less than among Fulani populations. It is often supposed that Fulani were converted to Islam before the eleventh century owing to the efforts of Malikite Mauritanian Arabs in Senegal (Delafosse, 1912). These were fortified by the establishment of the Almoravid Empire on the ruins of the kingdom of Ghana (Bovill, 1933). These events gave rise to the Fulani Tooroobhe (those who pray to Allah). The Fulani Tooroobhe of Senegal themselves moved eastwards in the wake of the Fulani migrations, initiating of Fulani sedentary communities and forming their widely dispersed brotherhoods. These men not only preached among existing Fulani communities wherever they found them, forming links based on their own influence with the central authorities of the alien States; they also often formed the foci of new communities drawn together by real or imagined persecution and cemented by a common language and common faith. Such dissident communities were formed by the Flights of holy men and were located in ill-istered parts of the States in which they were found. The rise of the Fulani Muslim States through the activities of the Fulani holy men thus depended in large measure on their influence among communities of their own people. background, maintaining their links with the Islamic Middle East, leading their fraternities, and encouraging the dissemination of their doctrines. Yet others have a more restricted sphere of action in the towns and country

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districts, continually transmitting by precept and example the fund of Islamic learning, the observance of its rites, and the rudiments of its law. Finally we come to the holy man of the village the scene of compromise and the amalgamation of Islamic popular beliefs and practices with those of pagan origin and sometimes of Christian dissemination. Their efforts at proselytism are, at best, circumscribed by their own narrow vision; or, at worst, merely batten on the credulity of those who seek their aid. But whatever their accomplishments or fields of activity the holy men are the spearheads, blunt or keen, of an Islam which is distinctively WestAfrican.

Important Historical Personalities

Usman Dan Fodio (1754-1817) Usman Dan Fodio was a Fulani from Degel in Gobir. He was brought up strictly in the Maliki rite and at an early age found his vocation as teacher and writer, but above all as a preacher.In the 1790s, He began a holy war, swept through Hausaland and, repulsed only by the eastern empire of Kanem-Bornu, engulfed Adamawa, Nupe, and Yorubaland to the south. After the invasion by the Fulani of the northern provinces of the Oyo, the emirate of Ilorin to the northeast became the base from which Islam was to spread among the Yoruba. Usman, who was more a scholar than a statesman, ceded the practical direction of the eastern part of the empire to his son Muhammad Bello, who settled in Sokoto, and the western (with its capital at Gwandu) to his brother Abdullahi. In the late 19th century British rule over ended their domination in Nigeria. Nana Asma'u, (1793-1865), Teacher, Poet & Islamic Leader Nana Asma'u (1793-1864) was a poet, teacher, and role model for Muslim women. Nana Asma'u was the daughter of Shaykh Usman dan Fodio, leader of a jihad to reform and purify Islam in the Sokoto region of what is today northern Nigeria. Her half-brother was Muhammad Bello, who became caliph of the region and whose descendents still hold that office. Nana Asma'u was a remarkable woman who was devoted to the cause of purifying Islam and unifying the region. She established a group of literate women teachers (jajis) who carried her teachings, written into her poems, and disseminated them to illiterate women throughout the community. One stunning example in the book is the poem "Be Sure of God's Truth" (pp. 120126), which reaches out to ordinary people (men and

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women) with advice on the behavior of good Muslims anywhere. She was a scholar of Islam and a key advisor to her father as he waged a jihad to bring Islam to the population of what is now northwestern Nigeria. Asma'u's literary legacy, consisting of 65 poems in Arabic, Fulfulde, and Hausa, constitutes one of the largest existing collections of 19th-century materials from the region. Her poetry has been transmitted over the years and is familiar to Hausa Muslims today, attesting to the power and continued relevance of her convictions and achievements. She is portrayed in the book entitled: One Woman's Jihad Nana Asma'u, Scholar and Scribe; By yeverly B. Mack and Jean Boyd

El-Hadj Umar Tall (1797-1864)

El Hajj Umar Tall was a muslim religious and military leader in W Africa. Declared a holy war in 1852. In several engagements (1857-59) against the French in Senegal, he was repulsed. Thereafter he turned eastward, conquering the kingdoms of Segu and Massina and sacking Timbuktu.

CHEIKH Ahmadou Bamba Khadimou Rassoul (1852-1927) Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba whose true name is Ahmed Ben Mohamed Ben Abib Allah was born about 1852, called by the community Khadimou Rascal, the servant of the prophet. Like a considerable number Black apostles of Islam, he was of Fulani origin that four generations earlier came from Fuuta Tooro to settle in the Wolof countryside. Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba then left Cayor to come to settle at MBacke-Baol the village of his ancestor. He founded close to Me Backe-Baol his own village, called TOUBA, which today has become the large religious metropolis, sanctuary of Mouridisme and an annual place of pilgrimage of the Black Muslim world. The French authorities bothered by the increasing influence of Ahmadou Bamba, exiled him in 1895 to Gabon where he remained for 7 years, 7 months and 7 days. He returned to Senegal continued to preach, to write and to oppose the French.

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El Hadj Malick Sy El Hadj Malick Sy was born in 1855 in a village of Gaya in Northern Senegal. He studied Quran and went to Mecca. When he came back from Mecca he started preaching the Tijaniya, and Islamic Suni. He settled in Tivaoune (Senegal) in 1902 and began organizing the Gamou, a well established holiday celebrating the Birthday of Prophet Muhammad. He fought against poverty and ignorance in the villages as well as in the cities. He was called the Maodho, the Guide.

Alpha Yaya

Bocar Biro

Apha Yaya was a King of Labe in Fuuta Jalon, he was one of the most controversial figures in the history of Fuuta Jalon. He was tricked byFrench colonials and was sent in exile in Mauritania where he died in 1912. His ashes were returned to Guinea in 1969. He inspired the Guinea National Anthem which was derived from a song by one of Alpha Yaya's griot

Bocar Biro was the last great Almamy of Fuuta Jalon. He fought to consolidate his power and to safeguard the independence of Fuuta Jalon. In alliance with Samory Toure, he resisted the French conquest of Guinea. He was killed by the French army at the battle of Poredaka in 1896. He belonged to the African of great destiny who valiantly gave their lives to oppose colonization.

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Sr. Ahmadu Bello (1910-1966) FSir Ahmadou Bello was a teacher, farmer, , politician, statesman and a religious leader. He was one of the founding fathers of Nigeria. His effort and others led to attainment of independence by the country in 1960. He encouraged both Islamic and Western education. He preached religious tolerance and honesty. He established Ahmadou Bello University, a Teaching hospital, the Nigerian newspaper, radio-television Kaduna, the northern Nigeria housing corporation and several others. Ahmadou Bello received honors and awards at home and abroad during his life time.He was made a Knight of the British Empire. He was Ahmadou Ahidjo Ahidjo, Ahmadou , 1924-89, president of the United Republic of Cameroon (1960-82). A Muslim Fulani chief's son, he served with the French during World War II. Entering politics in the French Cameroons, he became vice premier (1957) and premier (1958) of the territory. With the Cameroon Republic's independence (1960), he was elected its first president. He also became president of the Mouvement d'Union Camerounaise, which favored continued strong ties with . He persuaded the British-istered Southern Cameroons to unite (1961) with the Cameroon Republic in the Federal Republic of Cameroon. He was reelected president in 1965, 1970, 1975, and 1980 .see book pdf

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Kingdoms and Empires with Fulani Presence Ghana Empire (c~700-1240) Kaya Magnan

Ghana (Wagadu), the earliest known empire of the western Sudan, first entered the historical consciousness of North Africa near the end of the eighth century but probably originated long before. The empire's legacy is still celebrated in the name of the Republic of Ghana; apart from this, however, modern-day and ancient Ghana share no direct historical connections. Despite early texts that discuss ancient Ghana, such as The Book of Routes and Kingdoms by the eleventh-century Andalusian geographer Abu cUbayd al-Bakri, it remains very much an enigma. Famous to North Africans as the "Land of Gold," Ghana was said to possess sophisticated methods of istration and taxation, large armies, and a monopoly over notoriously well-concealed gold mines. The king of the Soninke people who founded Ghana never fully embraced Islam, but good relations with Muslim traders were fostered. Ghana's preeminence faded toward the end of the eleventh century, when its power was broken by a long struggle with the Almoravids led by Abdullah ibn Yasin. Ghana subsequently fell to the expanding Soso kingdom. Tekruur (850ad), Dia Ogo, Warjabi Ibn Rabis Islam was accepted as early as 850 AD in the Kingdom of Tekruur, situated on both banks of the Senegal, by the Dia Ogo dynasty. This dynasty was the first West African people who accepted Islam . It was for this reason that Arab Muslim historians referred to Bilâd al-Tekruur as The land of the Black Muslims. Warjabî ibn Rabis, was the first ruler of Tekruur, in whose reign Islam was firmly established and the Islam ic shariah system enforced. This gave a uniform Muslim law to the people of the region. By the time the Al-MurabiÏûn or Almoravids began their attack on Tekruur in 1042 A.C., Islam had made a deep impact on the people of that area. AlIdrissa in 1511 A.C. described the Tekruur country as secure, peaceful and tranquil. The capital town of Tekruur was also called Tekruur which had become a centre of commerce and merchants used to bring wool to sell there from Maghrib, taking away with them gold and beads in exchange. When the Kingdom of Tekruur fully converted to Islam in the mid-11th century, it participated in establishing the Almoravid state, centered in

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Morocco. After 1087 the Almoravids kingdom began disintegrating, the Tekruur kingdom started to strenghten on the banks of the Senegal river . Tekruur's people were the first of the West African kingdoms to have a strict interpretation of the Islamic faith and to wage wars against people who weren't Muslim. Tekruurian soldiers were allied with the Almoravids and in 1056-1057 they waged wars against pagan Ghanaians. At the end of the 10th century War Diabi took power and converted to Islam. Tekruur, situated on the Senegal River and the Transsahara roads, was a powerful a rich kingdom whose principal activity was trade of gold and beads. It came under the domination of the Ghana Empire in the 11th century, of the Mali Empire in the 13th century and of the Djolof Empire in the 14th century. At the end of the 15th century the Tekruur was conquered by Koli Tenguela, a Fulani from the south who gave it its independence and created a new dynasty, the Denianke and a new kingdom the Fuuta Tooro.In the 16th century the Fuuta Tooro conquered the neighboring states of Djolof and Cayor. The Denianke dynasty was replaced by Muslim clerics led by Thierno Sileyman Baal in 1770. Islam became the guiding principal of the civil society. Almamy Abdul Kader was selected the 1st Almamy (Leader of the Believers) See also Halpulaar.

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The Almoravids (1090-1147)

History 1039: The Almoravid leader Abdallah bni Yasin declares holy war against the Sanhaja Berbers. 1054: The Almoravids start their conquest of Maghreb. 1062: The Almoravids establish their capital in Marrakech (today's Morocco). 1082: The Almoravids take control over Algiers. 1085: The Almoravid leader Yusuf bni Tashufin sets over to Spain, and establishes himself in Cordoba. 1102: Valencia falls to the Almoravids 1147: Marrakech falls to the Almohads, and the Almoravid leaders move to first Spain and then the Balearic Isles. The Almoravids were a group of Muslims, originating in southern Mauritania/ Northern Senegal of mixed Berber and Fulani people that built an empire in Maghreb and Spain in the 11th and 12th centuries. Their Muslim orientation was one of simple and basic rules. Their theological foundation had been formed by Ahdallah Abdallah bni Yasin.The Almoravids were based on military commanders who also were s, called themselves jurists (fuqaha). Their theology was based on a strict Malikite version of Sharia (Islamic law).Architecture from the Almoravid period is characterized by simplicity, and with little decoration. Kanem-Bornu (1097-1150) At about 800 CE, the Kanuri people of the Lake Chad region, under the leadership of their legendary king Dugu, formed the beginnings of the trading empire of Kanem, and later Bornu. At about 1085, with the influence of Islam having entered the region some time before, the first Muslim ruler, Houme of the Sefawa dynasty, came to the throne. And, under Mai (king) Salma (1194-1221) Islam became the state religion. Under the reign of Idris Alooma (1580-1603), the now merged Empire of Bornu-Kanem regained much of its influence with its borders encoming

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Murzuk to the north and Darfar in the east. In the 1800's the Kanuri were faced with invasion from the Fulani armies that had already conquered Hausaland.

Mali (1238-1468) In the early thirteenth century, the exiled prince Sundiata Keita ("the hungering lion") led a Mande revolt against the powerful Soso king Sumanguru Kante that marked the ascension of the Mali empire. After Sundiata, the most famous ruler of the Mali empire is Mansa Kankan Musa I, who came to power several decades after the death of his legendary predecessor. Musa's hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) of 1324-25 drew the attention of both the Islamic world and Europeans. Accompanied by an enormous entourage, Musa apparently dispensed so much gold in Cairo that the precious metal's value plummeted and did not recover for several years thereafter. The image of Mansa Musa bearing nuggets of gold was subsequently commemorated in maps of the African continent.The fourteenth-century traveler Ibn Battuta visited ancient Mali a few decades after Musa's death. north and Darfar in the east. In the 1800's, the Kanuri were faced with invasion from the Fulani armies that had already conquered Hausaland.

It was from one of Mali's former conquests, the kingdom of Gao, that the last major empire of the western Sudan emerged. Although the city of Gao had been occupied by a Songhai dynasty prior to being conquered by Mansa Musa's forces in 1325, it was not until much later that the Songhai empire emerged. It began to rise in 1464 when Sonni cAli Ber came to power. Sonni cAli conquered much of the weakening Mali empire's territory as well as Timbuktu, famous for its Islamic universities and the pivotal trading city of Jenne. Following Sonni cAli's death, Muslim factions rebelled against his

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successor and installed Askia Muhammad (formerly Muhammad Ture) as the first ruler of the Askia dynasty (1492-1592). Under the Askias, the Songhai empire reached its zenith, Timbuktu and Jenne flourished as centers of Islamic learning, and Islam was actively promoted. Fuuta-Jalon (1727) Fuuta Jalon is a highland region, in central Guinea, W Africa. Largely rolling grassland the region is inhabited by the Fulani. The Niger, Senegal, and Gambia rivers rise there. Since the 18th cent. It has been a stronghold of Islam until the arrival of the French colonizers.About 1727, the Fulani of Fuuta Jalon were led by Karamoko Alpha who established the Almamya (Leader of the Believers). The Almamy was selected between two families, The Alfaya Family and The Soriya Family. See table of The Almamies of Fuuta-Jalonbelow.Muhammad (formerly Muhammad Ture) as the first ruler of the Askia dynasty (1492-1592). Under the Askias, the Songhai empire reached its zenith, Timbuktu and Jenne flourished as centers of Islamic learning, and Islam was actively promoted. Fuuta Jalon is a highland region, in central Guinea, W Africa. Largely rolling grassland the region is inhabited by the Fulani. The Niger, Senegal, and Gambia rivers rise there. Since the 18th cent. It has been a stronghold of Islam until the arrival of the French colonizers.About 1727, the Fulani of Fuuta Jalon were led by Karamoko Alpha who established the Almamya (Leader of the Believers). The Almamy was selected between two families, The Alfaya Family and The Soriya Family. See table of The Almamies of Fuuta-Jalonbelow.Muhammad (formerly Muhammad Ture) as the first ruler of the Askia dynasty (1492-1592). Under the Askias, the Songhai empire reached its zenith, Timbuktu and Jenne flourished as centers of Islamic learning, and Islam was actively promoted.

Table of the Fuuta-Jalon Almamya Sovereign Almamies of Fuuta Jalon Ibrahima Sambeegu, called Karamoko Alfa mo Timbo

18 years

Ibrahima Sori Yero Poore, called Ibrahima Sori Mawdho(17301764),

34 years

Alfaya

Soriya

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3th. Alfa Saalihu (son of Karamoko Alfa)(1764-1770)

4 years

4th. Saadu(son of Sori Mawdho)(1784-1791/95)

5th. Abdullaahi Baademba(1796/97-1813)

16 years

6th. Abdul Qaadirison of Sori 13 Mawdho, Pathe years d'Umaru1805-1813/25)

7th. Bubakar Zikru(18131814)

9 8th. Yaya (1825-1833/37) months

8 years

9th. Bubakar Mawdhoson of Abdullaahi Baademba(18141839/42)

25 years

10th. Umaruson of Abdul Qaadiri(1837/42-1871)

29 years

11th. Ibrahima Sori Daara son 30 of Bubakar Mawdho(1843years 1873)

12th. Ibrahima Sori Donhol Fella (1871-887/88)

19 years

13th. Ahmadu Daara (18731894/95)

14th. Bubakar called Bokar Biro (1889-1896)

6years

18 years

6 years

Source: Laing, Hecquard, Lambert, Bayol, Noirot, Madrolle, Arcin, Saint-Pere, Marty, Tauxier, Vieillard, Sow, Diallo Non-Sovereign Almamies of Fuuta Jalon In 1912, the French istration officially cancelled the functions of Almamy. The Almamies of the period are:     

Almamy Almamy Almamy Almamy Almamy

Sori Yilili. Soriya (1896-1897) Umaru Bademba. Alfaya, (1896-1912) Baba Alimou. Soriya (1897-1906) Bokar Biro II (1906-1912) Aguibou. Soriya,

Masina (1818-1853) Sheik Ahmadu The Masina is a region located in central Mali and northern Burkina Faso.Following the collapse of Songhai Empire in 1591 by the armies of alMansur of Morocco number of small kingdoms Masina, Gonja, Segou, Kaarta strove to dominate the western Mali, but continual strife and economic decline were the only results. In 1818 Seku Ahmadu, a Fulani Muslim introduced a theocratic state in Macina. During his rule an empire embracing the whole of the Niger River region, from Jenne to Timbuktu, was created. Upon his death in 1844 his son took power, but in 1862 Macina fell to another Muslim reformer, al-Hajj Umar.

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Bhundu (1690)

About 1690, Malick Sy, a Fulani religious scholar from Fuuta Tooro, obtained from the Tunka(King) of Goye at territory between the Faleme River and The Gambia River, he called Bhundu. He proclaimed the Holy war opposed the kingdom of Goye and grew his kingdom. Bhundu prospered under Malick Sy reign and his descendants, the Sissibe.

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Sokoto (1809-) The Fulani Empire of Sokoto was the last of the five great empires that rose and fell in the Sudan between the eighth and twentieth centuries. It was founded by three men of the same family, probably the most remarkable triumvirate that Africa has yet produced, and it developed a society which, in its heyday, was perhaps better governed and more highly civilized than any other that Africans had until then evolved. The late author, who for over twenty years was an istrative Officer in Northern Nigeria, the core of the Sokoto Empire, was an accomplished Hausa scholar who also published a volume of translations. He was therefore able to supplement the established English and Arabic authorities by introducing new information gathered from Fulani and Hausa sources, much of which he collected himself in the course of his service. More important still, every chapter of his history is illuminated by an intimate knowledge of the country and genuine sympathy with its people

Special Historical places Sokoto (Nigeria)

city (1987 est. pop. 164,000), NW Nigeria, on the Sokoto River. It is the commercial center for a wide region and a collection place for hides, skins, and peanuts. Rice and tobacco are grown for local consumption. The city has cement, pottery, and leather tanning and dyeing industries. Sokoto was founded in 1809 by Usman dan Fodio, the Fulani leader who established a large Muslim empire including most of N Nigeria. It became the capital of the empire and was built up in the 1820s by Muhammadu Bello, dan Fodio's son. In 1903, Sokoto fell to British forces under Frederick Lugard . ABubacar Sidiq Sultan of Sokoto The assassination of the Sultan of Sokoto in 1966 was a cause of the Nigerian civil war (see Biafra, Republic of ). The tomb of dan Fodio and other shrines in the city have made it a place of pilgrimage for Muslims.

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Bornu (Chad) Former Muslim state, mostly in NE Nigeria, extending S and W of Lake Chad. It began its existence as a separate state in the late 14th cent. From the 14th to the 18th cent. Bornu exported slaves, eunuchs, fabrics dyed with saffron, and other goods to N Africa. Bornu reached its peak under the mai (ruler) Idris Alawma (ruled 1570-1610), when it was the leading state in the central Sudan region. Bornu declined from the 17th cent. In the early 19th cent. it was severely threatened by the Fulani but maintained its independence when Muhammad al-Kanemi (ruled 1814-35), who established a new dynasty, revived the state. However, Bornu began to decline again after c.1850 because of weak rulers, and was conquered (1893-96) by the forces of Rabih, a Sudanese slave trader. In 1898, Bornu was divided among Great Britain, , and . In 1922 the German portion became part of the British Cameroons mandate of the League of Nations.

Idris king of Kanem-Bornu

Bornu Royal Court

Touba (Senegal) Touba was founded by Ahmadou Bamba. It is a Holy City in Senegal West Africa. Touba is considered by many Mourides as very important. Pilgrims come to Touba at any time, but the high point of the year is a mass pilgrimage called the Grand Magal (48 days after the Islamic New Year), which celebrates Bamba's. return from exile. At this time, about half a million Mouride followers flock into Touba from all over Senegal and Gambia

Touba Mosque

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Kano (Nigeria) One of the oldest kingdoms of Africa created c998. Kano became vassal of Bornu in the 18th century. In 1807, the Fulbe Jihad killed the 42nd King and replaced his Habe dynasty with a new dynasty of Emirs. On 3/2/1903, Kano became part of the Northern Nigerian British protectorate. Today, the State of Kano with capital named also Kano..

Kano

Dinguiray (Guinea) El Hajj Umar was a prestigious as a religious leader. He went to Fuuta Jalon in 1849. He established his following in Dinguiray where he declared a jihad in September 1852 against all non- believers. In a decade, he conquered the Western Suan including Dinguiray, Bure, Segou, Kaarta and Macina. By 1863, his envoys demanded tribute from Timbuktu.

El Hajj Umar Mosk

Fez (Morocco) Fez is a Holy city very much respected by a large number of Fulani who belong to the Tijaniya, a Sufi Muslim order. The Tijaniya order was founded by Cheikh Ahmed Tijane who lived in Fez (Morocco). The order flourished all over West Africa, including Senegal with the Teachings of Cheikh Ibrahim Niass. Many of the Tijaniya order go to Fez for pilgrimage. The beautiful Kairouine mosque of Fez was founded in 859 by Fatima, a wealthy woman refugee from the city of Kairouan (Morocco).

Fez

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Tivaoune (Senegal) Fez is a Holy city very much respected by a large number of Fulani who belong to the Tijaniya, a Sufi Muslim order. The Tijaniya order was founded by Cheikh Ahmed Tijane who lived in Fez (Morocco). The order flourished all over West Africa, including Senegal with the Teachings of Cheikh Ibrahim Niass. Many of the Tijaniya order go to Fez for pilgrimage. The Elhajj Malik Sy and Entourage beautiful Kairouine mosque of Fez was founded in 859 by Fatima, a wealthy woman refugee from the city of Kairouan (Morocco).

Timbuktu

A Historical city What major city in the West African empire of Mali was once a worldwide cultural center, with vast libraries, rich universities and a thriving gold trade? The answer is Timbuktu. What earned this "Town of the 333 Saints" its symbolic power to fascinate? Even today, the "Pearl of Medieval Mali" is renowned the world over because it was, in its heyday, among the most radiant seats of culture and civilization in the world. In 1354 the great Muslim explorer Ibn Batuta (1304-1377) wrote of his visit to Timbuktu and told of the wealth and gold of the region. Thus, Timbuktu became renown as an African El Dorado, a city made of gold. Testimony to this is found not only in history books, but also in the unique earthen architecture, of which some of the finest examples are the mosques of Djingareyber, Sankoré and Sidi Yahia. In 1988, Timbuktu was designated a United Nations World Heritage Site and efforts are underway to preserve and protect the city and especially its centuries-old mosques. UNESCO included all three Mosques in the World Heritage List.

Timbuktu, also spelled Tombouctou or Timbuctoo, is a city in the West African nation of Mali. It is historically important as a post on the trans-Saharan caravan route. It is located on the southern edge of the Sahara, about 8 mi (13 km) north of the Niger River. Timbuktu was a centre for the expansion of Islam, an intellectual and spiritual capital at the end of the Mandingo Askia dynasty (1493-1591) and home to a prestigious Koranic university. Three great mosques built at that time, using traditional techniques, still remain.

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Timbuktu was founded about AD 1100 as a seasonal camp by Tuareg nomads. After it was incorporated within the Mali Empire, probably in the late 13th century, the Mali sultan, Mansa Musam, built a tower for the Great Mosque (Djingereyber) and a royal residence, the Madugu (the former has since been rebuilt many times, and of the latter no trace now remains). Shortly after this the city was annexed by the Mossi kingdom of Yatenga, but when the North African traveller Ibn Battutah visited in 1353, he found it again governed by Mali. In the 14th century Timbuktu became an important focal point of the gold-salt trade. With the influx of North African merchants came the settlement of Muslim scholars. It made little difference that the Tuareg regained control of the city in 1433; they ruled from the desert, and, though they plundered periodically, trade and learning continued to flourish. In 1468 Timbuktu was conquered by Sonni 'Ali, the Songhai ruler. He was generally ill-disposed to the city's Muslim scholars, but his successor--the first ruler of the new Askia dynasty, Muhammad I Askia of Songhai (reigned 14931528)--reversed the policy and used the scholarly elite as legal and moral counselors. During the Askia period (1493-1591) Timbuktu was at the height of its commercial and intellectual development. Merchants from Wadan, Tuwat, Ghudamis (Ghadames), Augila, and the cities of Morocco gathered there to buy gold and slaves in exchange for the Saharan salt of Taghaza and for North African cloth and horses. The city's scholars, many of whom had studied in Mecca or Egypt, attracted students from a wide area. The city declined after it was captured by Morocco in 1591. Two years later the city's scholars were arrested on suspicion of disaffection; some were killed during a struggle, others were exiled to Morocco. The small Moroccan garrisons could not protect the Niger Bend, and Timbuktu was repeatedly attacked and conquered by the Fulani, Bambara, and Tuareg until 1893, when the French captured the city. The French partly restored the city from the desolate condition in which they found it, but no railway or tarmac road ever reached it. In 1960 it became part of the newly independent Republic of Mali. Timbuktu is now an istrative centre of Mali. Small salt caravans from Taoudenni still arrive in winter, but there is no gold to offer in exchange, and trans-Saharan commerce no longer exists. Although there is air service, the city remains most easily accessible by camel and boat. Islamic learning survives among a handful of aging scholars, and a Lyc e Franco-Arabe teaches Arabic to the younger generation. Pop. (1998) 36,000. From: Encyclopedia Britannica

Leo Africanus: Description of Timbuktu from The Description of Africa(1526)

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El Hasan ben Muhammed el-Wazzan-ez-Zayyati was born in the Moorish city of Granada in 1485, but was expelled along with his parents and thousands of other Muslims by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492. Settling in Morocco, he studied in Fez, and as a teenager accompanied his uncle on diplomatic missions throughout North Africa and and to the Sub-Saharan kingdom of Ghana. Still a young man, he was captured by Christian pirates and presented as an exceptionally learned slave to the great Renaissance pope, Leo X. Leo freed him, baptised him under the name "Johannis Leo de Medici," and commissioned him to write in Italian the detailed survey of Africa which provided most of what Europeans knew about the continent for the next several centuries. At the time he visited the Ghanaian city of Timbuktu, it was somewhat past its peak, but still a thriving Islamic city famous for its learning. "Timbuktu" was to become a byword in Europe as the most inaccessible of cities, but at the time Leo visited, it was the center of a busy trade in African products and in books. Leo is said to have died in 1554 in Tunis, having reconverted to Islam. What evidence does he provide that suggests the importance of learning in Timbuktu? The name of this kingdom is a modern one, after a city which was built by a king named Mansa Suleyman in the year 610 of the hegira [1232 CE] around twelve miles from a branch of the Niger River (1). The houses of Timbuktu are huts made of clay-covered wattles with thatched roofs. In the center of the city is a temple built of stone and mortar, built by an architect named Granata, (2) and in addition there is a large palace, constructed by the same architect, where the king lives. The shops of the artisans, the merchants, and especially weavers of cotton cloth are very numerous. Fabrics are also imported from Europe to Timbuktu, borne by Berber merchants. (3) The women of the city maintain the custom of veiling their faces, except for the slaves who sell all the foodstuffs. The inhabitants are very rich, especially the strangers who have settled in the country; so much so that the current king (4) has given two of his daughters in marriage to two brothers, both businessmen, on of their wealth. There are many wells containing sweet water in Timbuktu; and in addition, when the Niger is in flood canals deliver the water to the city. Grain and animals are abundant, so that the consumption of milk and butter is considerable. But salt is in very short supply because it is carried here from Tegaza, some 500 miles from Timbuktu. I happened to be in this city at a time when a load of salt sold for eighty ducats. The king has a rich treasure of coins and gold ingots. One of these ingots weighs 970 pounds. (5) The royal court is magnificent and very well organized. When the king goes from one city to another with the people of his court, he rides a camel and the horses are led by hand by servants. If fighting becomes necessary, the servants mount the camels and all the soldiers mount on horseback. When someone wishes to speak to the king, he must kneel before him and bow

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down; but this is only required of those who have never before spoken to the king, or of ambassadors. The king has about 3,000 horsemen and infinity of foot-soldiers armed with bows made of wild fennel [?] which they use to shoot poisoned arrows. This king makes war only upon neighboring enemies and upon those who do not want to pay him tribute. When he has gained a victory, he has all of them--even the children--sold in the market at Timbuktu. Only small, poor horses are born in this country. The merchants use them for their voyages and the courtiers to move about the city. But the good horses come from Barbary. They arrive in a caravan and, ten or twelve days later, they are led to the ruler, who takes as many as he likes and pays appropriately for them. The king is a declared enemy of the Jews. He will not allow any to live in the city. If he hears it said that a Berber merchant frequents them or does business with them, he confiscates his goods. There are in Timbuktu numerous judges, teachers and priests, all properly appointed by the king. He greatly honors learning. Many hand-written books imported from Barbary are also sold. There is more profit made from this commerce than from all other merchandise. Instead of coined money, pure gold nuggets are used; and for small purchases, cowrie shells which have been carried from Persia, (6) and of which 400 equal a ducat. Six and two-thirds of their ducats equal one Roman gold ounce. (7) The people of Timbuktu are of a peaceful nature. They have a custom of almost continuously walking about the city in the evening (except for those that sell gold), between 10 PM and 1 AM, playing musical instruments and dancing. The citizens have at their service many slaves, both men and women. The city is very much endangered by fire. At the time when I was there on my second voyage, (8) half the city burned in the space of five hours. But the wind was violent and the inhabitants of the other half of the city began to move their belongings for fear that the other half would burn. There are no gardens or orchards in the area surrounding Timbuktu. Translated by Paul Brians

(1) Mansa Suleyman reigned 1336-1359. The city was in fact probably founded in the 11th century by Tuaregs, but became the chief city of the king of Mali in 1324. (2) Ishak es Sahili el-Gharnati, brought to Tinbuktu by Mansa Suleyman. (3) By camel caravan across the Sahara Desert from NorthAfrica. (4) 'Omar ben Mohammed Naddi, not in fact the king, but representative of the

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ruler of the kingdom of Songhai. (5) Such fabulous nuggets are commonly mentioned by Arab writers about Africa, but their size is probably grossly exaggerated. (6) Cowrie shells, widely used for money in West Africa, sometimes came in fact from even farther away, from the Maladive Islands of Southeast Asia. (7) A Sudanese gold ducat would weigh .15 oz. (8) Probably in 1512.

Library of Congress Exhibits : Ancient Manuscripts from the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu June 24 - September 3, 2003

Situated on the edge of the Sahara Desert, Timbuktu was famous among the merchants of the Mediterranean basin as a market for obtaining the goods and products of Africa south of the desert. However, Timbuktu's most famous and long-lasting contribution to Islamic and world civilization is the scholarship practiced there. By at least the fourteenth century, important books were written and copied there, establishing the city as the center of a significant written tradition in Africa. These ancient manuscripts cover every aspect of human endeavor. The manuscripts are indicative of the high level of civilization attained by West Africans during the Middle Ages and provide irrefutable proof of a powerful African literary tradition. Scholars in the fields of Islamic Studies and African Studies believe that analysis of these texts will cause Islamic, West African, and World History to be reevaluated. These manuscripts, surviving from as long ago as the fourteenth century, are remarkable artifacts important to Malian and West African culture. The exhibited manuscripts date from the sixteenth to eighteenth century. The manuscripts on view are from the Mamma Haidara Commemorative Library and the Library of Cheick Zayni Baye of Boujbeha, two of the most noteworthy institutions in the Timbuktu area. As part of its continuing effort to create a universal collection of recorded knowledge from all geographic areas and all historical eras, the Library of Congress is particularly proud to have the opportunity to exhibit these important cultural artifacts from Mali. The Library is also pleased that copies of these manuscripts will be deposited in its collections and will be available for use by researchers and scholars.

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Sources Library of Congress Unesco World Heritage CEDRAB: The Centre de Documentation et de Recherches Ahmad Baba at Timbuktu

The Portuguese First aThe first sustained European interest in Africa developed through the efforts of Henry the Navigator, prince of Portugal. Numerous expeditions were sent out after 1434, each extending European knowledge of the African coastline southward, until, in 1497 and 1498, Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached India. The Portuguese explorations were motivated by a variety of impulses: a desire for knowledge, a wish to bring Christianity to what they perceived as pagan peoples, the search for potential allies against Islamic threats, and the hope of finding new and lucrative trade routes and sources of wealth. Wherever the Portuguese and the English, French, and Dutch who followed them, went, they disrupted ongoing patterns of trade and political life and changed economic and religious systems.With their exploration of the lower Senegal River in 1444, Portuguese navigators became the first Europeans known to visit the West Coast of Africa. The Portuguese soon began to export slaves. Until the end of the 16th century the Senegambian region was the most important source of slaves for the transatlantic slave trade. During the 17th century other European states challenged Portuguese commercial dominance in the region. The Dutch built a series of coastal forts, the most famous of which on Goree Island quickly developed into a major slave-trading station.

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Trade Routes in Africa The Portuguese established a chain of trading settlements along the West African coast. Elmina, founded on the Gold Coast in 1482, was the most important; in fact, it was only on the Gold Coast and in the Congo and Luanda areas that trade was really lucrative. African gold, ivory, foodstuffs, and slaves were exchanged for ironware, firearms, textiles, and foodstuffs. The Portuguese trade attracted rival European traders who, in the 16th century, created competing stations or attempted to capture the existing trade. In western Africa the new trade had profound effects. Earlier trade routes had been oriented northward across the Sahara, primarily to the Islamic world. Now the routes were reoriented to the coast, and as the states of the savanna declined in economic importance, states along the coast increased their wealth and power. Struggles soon developed among coastal peoples for control over trade routes and for access to the new firearms introduced from Europe. In the 19th century, with the Europeans began when the first European explorers--notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German) Rene Caille. Slave Trade

The most horrible trade ever humanity engaged in was the Triangle Slave Trade between Europeans and Africans to the America. Over400 Years Africa was robbed of more than 200 millions of its best, brightest and strongest

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inhabitants. Against guns alcohol and trinkets, Europeans purchased slaves from Africa took them to America where they sold them for labor to purchase sugar, tobacco and cotton. (Picture from fototraite) Though slavery existed long before the arrival of the Europeans, under subject of the Muslim religion in the eleventh century the exportation of African slaves increased and in time Europe and West Africa found themselves exchanging guns for slaves. Yet, the definition of slavery in Africa was not tantamount to the American or European vision of slavery. Slavery in Africa was a symbol of honor and not an instrument of wealth and greed. African slaves were permitted to live very normal lives. They had sanction to marry, own property, and customary legal rights. Many of them had significant skill and learning. While in America slaves underwent brutal beatings, hard labor, and lack of respect. While some slaves shipped to Europe and America had previously been African slaves, many enslaved had been innocent bystanders. It was not uncommon for the Europeans to hide and wait for an African to come along, and then kidnap him. The retrieval of slaves was also obtained through Africans convicted of a crime. It was also likely for Africans of a tribe to be captured by an enemy tribe as a prisoner of war and then exchanged for goods. This lasted from the 15th to the 19th century, devastating the lives of at least twenty million Africans. All forced into foreign enslavement, exported in exchange for imported goods. This is known as the slave trade. With the rise of the slave trade to the Americas, wars over the control of African commerce became more intense. During the latter 18th century, sentiment in Great Britain turned against the slave trade. Following the Mansfield decision of 1772, which freed slaves in Great Britain, plans were made for a West African colony for former slaves. The first attempt (17871790) at Saint George's Bay (in present-day Sierra Leone) failed; a second attempt was made by abolitionists, who in 1792 founded Freetown in the same area. When the British outlawed the slave trade for British citizens in 1807, they saw Freetown as a desirable base for naval operations against such trade, and in 1808, Sierra Leone was made a crown colony. The example of Sierra Leone appealed to Americans interested in black colonization, and in early 1822 the American Colonization Society succeeded in establishing its colony, Liberia, at nearby Cape Mesurado. Then and Great Britain The Portuguese established a chain of trading settlements along the West African coast. Elmina, founded on the Gold Coast in 1482, was the most important; in fact, it was only on the Gold Coast and in the Congo and Luanda areas that trade was really lucrative. African gold, ivory, foodstuffs, and slaves were exchanged for ironware, firearms, textiles, and foodstuffs. The Portuguese trade attracted rival European traders who, in the 16th century, created competing stations or attempted to capture the existing trade. In western Africa the new trade had profound effects. Earlier trade routes had been oriented northward across the Sahara, primarily to the

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Islamic world. Now the routes were reoriented to the coast, and as the states of the savanna declined in economic importance, states along the coast increased their wealth and power. Struggles soon developed among coastal peoples for control over trade routes and for access to the new firearms introduced from Europe. In the 19th century, with the Europeans began when the first European explorers--notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German) Rene Caille. Partitioning Africa As European private interest in Africa grew, the involvement of their governments multiplied. The French began the conquest of Algeria and Senegal in the 1830s, but the systematic occupation of tropical Africa did not occur until the second half of the century. As European citizens and s penetrated inland, they encountered resistance from dominant peoples and welcome from subordinated peoples seeking allies or protectors. From about 1880 to 1905, most of Africa was partitioned among Belgium, , , Britain, Italy, and Portugal (see Scramble for Africa). In 1876 King Leopold II of the Belgians established the International Association of the Congo, a private company, for the exploration and colonization of the region. His principal agent for this task was Anglo-American explorer Henry Morton Stanley. By 1884 the intense rivalry of the European powers for additional African territory, and the illdefined boundaries of their various holdings, threatened their international relations. A conference was then called at Berlin, , to which the nations of Europe, together with the United States, sent delegates. At the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884 and 1885 the powers defined their spheres of influence and laid down rules for future occupation on the coasts of Africa and for navigation of the Congo and Niger rivers. Among the important provisions of the General Act of Berlin was the rule that when a power acquired new territory in Africa or assumed a protectorate over any part of the continent, it must notify the other powers signatory to the conference. During the next 15 years, numerous treaties were negotiated between the European nations, implementing and modifying the provisions of the conference. Two such treaties were concluded in 1890 by Britain. The first, with , demarcated the spheres of influence of the two powers in Africa. The second treaty, with , recognized British interests in the region between Lake Chad and the Niger River and acknowledged French influence in the Sahara. Other agreements, notably those between Britain

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and Italy in 1891, between and in 1894, and between Britain and in 1899, further clarified the boundaries of the various European holdings in Africa. British Expansionism The British desire to suppress the slave trade found expression in attempts at redirecting African commerce toward other exports, such as palm oil, in heightened missionary activity, and in the imposition of British government jurisdiction over properties previously held by British merchants. Such developments frequently involved Britain inadvertently in struggles with African states and led to its assumption of sovereignty over certain African territory. On the Gold Coast, the British government took control of a series of forts in 1821. Through misunderstandings the first of a series of Ashanti-British wars occurred from 1823 to 1826; these conflicts were to continue intermittently until the end of the century. Although the government gave up control of the forts in 1828, it again assumed jurisdiction in 1843. British authority over the Ashanti, however, was not firmly established until 1900. In the Niger Delta of Nigeria, the British abolition of slavery brought about a shift in trade from slaves to palm oil, and in pursuit of this commodity Britain required a nearby port; in addition, the British were eager to eliminate the middlemen in delta states such as Calabar, Bonny, and Brass. In 1852, therefore, they forced the ruler of Lagos to accept British protection, and in 1861 Lagos was annexed as a crown colony. African Resistance No African states had been invited to the Berlin conference, and none signed these agreements. Whenever possible, the decisions made in Europe were resisted when applied on African soil. The French faced a revolt in Algeria in 1870 and resistance from 1881 to 1905 to their efforts to control the Sahara. In the western Sudan the Mandinka ruler Samory Toure and Ahmadu, the son and successor of al-Hajj Umar of the Tukolor state, attempted to maintain their independence. Both were defeated by the French, however, Ahmadu in 1893 and Samory five years later. Dahomey was occupied by French

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forces in 1892, and the Wadai region was the last area to fall to the French, in 1900. British s encountered similar resistance from the Boers in South Africa during the periods 1880 and 1881 and 1899 to 1902. British and Boer settlers conquered Matabeleland in 1893, and three years later both the Matabele (Ndebele) and their subordinates, the Shona, revolted. Revolts broke out in Ashantiland in 1893 and 1894, 1895 and 1896, and 1900 and in Sierra Leone in 1897. The British conquest of the Fulani Hausa states was resisted from 1901 to 1903. Sokoto revolted in 1906. The Germans faced the Herero insurrection in South-West Africa from 1904 to 1908 and Maji Maji revolt from 1905 to 1907 in Tanganyika. Only the Ethiopians under Emperor Menelik II were successful in resisting European conquest, annihilating an Italian force at the Battle of Adwa (Aduwa) in 1896. Changing of a Continent Once the territories were conquered and pacified, the European istrations began to develop transportation systems so that raw materials could be shipped more easily to ports for export, and to institute tax systems that would force subsistence farmers either to raise cash crops or to engage in migrant labor. Both policies were well under way when World War I (1914-1918) disrupted these efforts. During the course of the war, the German territories in West and South-West Africa were conquered and later were mandated by the League of Nations to the various Allied powers. Thousands of Africans either fought in the war or served as porters for the Allied armies. Resistance to the war was limited to the short-lived 1915 rebellion of John Chilembwe, an African clergyman, in Nyasaland (now Malawi). After World War I, efforts for the exploitation of the colonies were tempered, and greater attention was paid to providing education, health services, and development assistance and to safeguarding African land rights. Nevertheless, the white settler colonies, such as Algeria, Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), and Kenya, were given considerable internal selfgovernment. Southern Rhodesia was made an internally self-governing crown colony in 1923 with virtually no provision for African voting. During the interwar years, various types of African-organized protest and nationalist movements began to emerge. On the whole, however, hip was limited to Western-educated African groups. Mass parties developed only in Egypt and Algeria, where large numbers of Africans had abandoned their traditional way of life and were developing new identities and allegiances. Ethiopia, which had earlier successfully resisted European colonization, fell to an Italian invasion in 1936 and did not regain its independence until

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World War II (1939-1945). With the coming of the war, Africans served in the Allied armies in even greater numbers than before, and the colonies generally ed the Allied cause.

Diaspora

Diaspora is the migration or the mass dispersion of peoples of a common culture. Historically, these movements tend to be for survival, or involuntary. They may be the result military occupation, systematic persecution, servitude, enslavement, or laws by which the dominant society defines an ethnic group as marginal, undesirable, or subordinate. In a broader sense, Diaspora is an understanding of peopleness, their intergroup relations, and resulting social changes due to geographical mobility and geosocial displacement. For Fulani people Diaspora is and has been an integral part of their lifestyle throughout History. First, their nomadic style of cattle herders required them to move across vast expanses of lands. Then, they carried the banner of Islam in many parts of West Africa. Their holy wars stopped only when Europeans came to Africa, conquered them and took them with others Africans into slavery to the Americas and the Caribbean. Current Fulani Diaspora Social and cultural changes cause first by the European colonization, and then by economic hardship and drought provoked a no less significant migration toward the other parts of Africa, Europe and America. There are significant number of Fulanis in non-traditional Fulani areas including Gabon, Congo, Egypt, Marroco, , Italy, England and USA.

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Historical Diaspora in the Americas2 Africans who came to the Americas and the Caribbean were from the Great Empire of Ghana, Mali, Songhay and the kingdoms of Fuuta Jalon, Fuuta Tooro, Massina and Bhundu. They were : Mande, Fulani, Khassonke, Sarakhule, Yoruba etc.., see box: Where in Africa did African Americans Originate. African tradition and culture has not died out among black people in the New World, despite many attempts to extinguish it. Many captives, who came to the New World, came from proeminent and powerful families. They were teachers, religious leaders, cavalries leaders, artists, artisans and students of law. The Africans continued to promote their culture and to use their language (Gullah) to help facilitate the communication among various tribes. The impact of Africans in the New World is most felt in art and culture from five African groups - Yoruba, Kongo, Ejagham, Mande and Fulani. A significant part of these cultures have maintained in the New World, which includes the United States, Cuba, Haiti, Trinidad, Mexico, Brazil and other places. Diaspora invariably leave a trail of collective memory about other times and places. But while most displaced peoples frame these attachments with the aid of living memory and the continuity of cultural traditions, the memories of those in the African diaspora have been refracted through the prism of history to create new maps of desire and attachment. Historically, black peoples in the New World have traced memories of an African homeland through the trauma of slavery and through ideologies of struggle and resistance. 8 Africans taken into slavery who became well known in America are: Ayub Job Djallo, Kunta Kinte, Yarrow Mamood, Ibrahim Abdul Rahman ibn Sori, Umar Ibn Sayyid, Sali Bilali, Ben Ali-Bilali

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Where in Africa did African Americans Originate? Lists the demographics of identifiable regions providing slaves for export between 17111810. Taken from P.D. Curtin's, "Atlantic Slave Trade."Some people complain that the term "African American" is a little vague because it refers to such a huge and diverse continent. The question is sometimes asked, "From where in Africa did African Americans come?" Many people in my parents generation (born 1920-40) thought that this question could not be answered. Then came "Roots." Here is some more information that might help African Americans develop a more personal connection with the regions that this question could not be answered. Then came "Roots." Here is some more information that might help African Americans develop a more personal connection with theregions and peoples of Africa. This information comes from P.D. Curtin's book, "Atlantic Slave Trade" p. 221. Obviously, this is not the only version available, but Curt in is a heavyweight on the subject (along with W.E.B. DuBois, R.R. Kuczynski, E. Donnan, Davies, H.S. Klein, etc) and I like the way the data is presented Other possible groups that maybe should be included as a "Ancestral group" of African Americans, and in what region:Fulani, Tuareg, Dialonke, Massina, Dogon, Songhay, Jekri, Jukun, Domaa,

Projected exports of that portion of the french and english slave trade having idenfiable region of coast origin in Africa 1711-1810 Senegambia (SenegalGambia)*

5.8%

Sierra Leone

3.4%

Windward Coast (Ivory Coast)*

12.1%

Gold Coast (Ghana)*

14.4%

Bight of Benin (Nigeria)*

14.5%

Bight of Biafra (Nigeria)*

25.1%

Central and SoutheastAfrica (Cameroon- N.Angola)*

24.7%

Wolof, Mandingo, Malinke, Bambara, Senegambia Papel, Limba, Bola, Balante, Serer, Fula, Tucolor

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Tallensi, Mossi, Nzima, Akwamu, Egba, Fang, and Ge.I've long associated some of the above names with political divisions, cultures, regions, languages, and/or dialects. If you have information that would remove, add, or move one of the above, please post it and we'll all be better informed.I'll it some of my biases and motives now. I hope this discussion will lead many African American to feel proud of the achievements of these groups, to feel angry towards governments and agencies that exploit them, and to feel sympathy towards their suffering. If that leads to political action and realignment of American resources and polices towards the region, then it could become important for some groups to get on this list. Nevertheless, Kwame Bandele

Sierra Leone

: Temne, Mende, Kisi, Goree, Kru.

Winward Coast (incl. Liberia)

Baoule, Vai, De, Gola (Gullah), Bassa, Grebo.

Gold Coast

Ewe, Ga, Fante, Ashante, Twi, Brong

Benin & Biafra Combined

Yoruba, Nupe, Benin,Dahomean (Fon), Edo-Bini, Allada, Efik, Ibibio, Ijaw, Ibani,Igbo(Calabar)

Central & Southeast Africa

BaKongo, MaLimbo, Ndungo, BaMbo, BaLimbe, BaDongo, Luba, Loanga, Ovimbundu, Cabinda, Pembe, Imbangala, Mbundu,BaNdulunda

Fulani Time Line Fulani Chronology 6000 BC

The River People emerge along Nile, Niger, and Congo Rivers (West-Central Africa); the Isonghee of Zaire (Republic of Congo) introduce mathematical abacus; and Cyclopean stone tombs built in Central African Republic area. Spread of agriculture south of the Sahara Desert ing a growing population, which mastered animal domestication and agriculture, and forced the San groups into the less hospitable areas.

4000 BC

Ancient African civilizations of the Nile Valley are established & flourish

300s AD

Empire of Ghana emerge (in present-day Mali)

400s AD

The Ghanaian empire becomes the most important power in West Africa

400s

Fulani migrate southward from present day Morocco and Mauritania

610 AD

Beginning of Islam

639-641 AD

Khalif Omar conquers Egypt with Islamic troops

750 (circa) Kingdom of Kangaba, from which the empire of Mali emerges, is AD founded (Present-day Mali). Songhai state emerges (Presentday Mali) 800 Kingdom of Kanem emerges (present-day Lake Chad region) (circa): AD

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800s AD

Tekruur founded (Present-day Senegal)

1000s AD

Kingdoms of Tekruur and Gao flourish in West Africa due to gold trade

1050 AD

Islam introduced to West-Africa

1050-1146 Almoravids, Berber/Fulani Muslims from Southern Mauritania/ AD Northern Senegal , take over Morocco, Algeria, and part of Muslim Spain; they invade Ghana in 1076, and establish power there. 1062 AD

Almoravids found capital at Marrakech

1100 AD

Ghana empire in West Africa declines

1147 AD

Almohads, Berber Muslims opposed to Almoravids, seize Marrakech and go on to conquer Almoravid Spain, Algeria, and Tripoli

c.1150AD

Empire of Ghana at its height

1230

Kanem at its height

1235

Great warrior leader Sun Diata founds Mali empire in Presentday Mali West Africa; it expands under his rule

1240 (circa)

Mali absorbs Ghana and Songhai

1250

(circa) Tekruur absorbed by Mali

1324

Emperor of Mali, Mansa Kankan Musa, goes on a pilgrimage to Mecca, Arabia

1325

(Circa) Empire of Mali at its height

1340

Songhai independent from Mali

1352

Ibn Battuta, Berber scholar, travels across Africa and writes an of all he sees

1386

State of Bornu established (present-day Lake Chad region)

1400s

Wolof Empire founded (Present day Senegal)

1420s

Portuguese sailors begin to explore west coast of Africa

1439

Portugal takes the Azores and increases expeditions along northwest African coast, eventually reaching the Gold Coast (modern Ghana).

1441

Beginning of European slave trade in Africa with first shipment of African slaves sent directly from Africa to Portugal.

c.1450

Nomadic Kunta Arabs began to preach and spread mystic Sufi Islam throughout the western Sudan. The Fulani, a nomadic pastoral people, moving slowly eastward from Senegal, also gain converts for Islam through mid-16th century.

1462

Sonni Ali becomes ruler of the Songhai and goes on to build an empire

1490(circa) Mali eclipsed by Songhai Empire 1500s

Songhai empire in West Africa enters period of greatest expansion and power under Askia Mohammed Toure

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1510

Start of Atlantic Slave Trade

1515

(circa) Songhai at its Height

1526

Bornu controls Kanem

1550 (circa)

Wolof Empire dissolved. Mali ceases to exist

1560s

First Portuguese embassies in Timbuktu, West Africa

1562

Britain begins its slave trade in Africa. Slave Trade increases significantly with development of plantation colonies of the Americas, especially in Brazil. Other countries involved in the European slave trade included Spain (from 1479); North America (from 1619); Holland (from 1625); (from 1642); Sweden (from 1647); and Denmark (from 1697).

1590

Songhai defeated by Moroccans

1591

Kanem-Burnu at greatest extent

1670

Fulani people gain control of Bhundu in Senegal with Malick Sy,and Sissibhe

1670

French settle in Senegal

1650

Fulani migrate into Fuuta Tooro and Fuuta Jalon

1673

Unsuccessful Fulani Holy war in Fuuta Tooro

1725

First successful Fulani holy war in Fuuta Jalon

c1775.

Fulani Muslim cleric Alfa Ibrahim appointed Commander of the Faithful in Fuuta Jalon in West Africa

1725

Second successful Holy war launched in Futa Toro 18th Century Between 1450 and 1850, at least 12 million Africans were shipped from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean-the notorious "Middle age"--primarily to colonies in North America, South America, and the West Indies. 80% of these kidnapped Africans (or at least 7 million) were exported during the 18th century, with a mortality rate of probably 10-20% on the ships enroute for the Americas.

1832-3

British abolish slavery in West Indies.

1863

Emancipation of slaves in the United States in midst of Civil War.

1800

Fulani Islamic Holy war : States of Futa Toro, Futa Djallon, Wuli and Bhundu in existence

1804-1809 Fulani Holy war in Haussaland led by Usman Dan Fodio; Sokoto Khaliphate established 18041809

Haussa states defeated by Fulani Holy war. Sokoto Caliphate founded by Fulani (Present-day Nigeria)

c.1820

Fulani emirate founded in Adamawa, West Africa

1820

Fulani in Mali, West Africa, found and rule Hamdallahi caliphate

1827

Independent Islamic state of Massina Eshtablished

1830

Sokoto Khaliphate reaches the greatest extent

1852

Fulani leader al-Hajj 'Umar launches holy war along Senegal

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and upper Niger rivers to establish Islamic state 1862

Macina conquered by Fulanis from Fuuta Tooro

1863

El-Hajj 'Umar takes Timbuktu

1870s1880s

Second Mandinka Empire established (Present-day Senegal) as successor to the Empire of Mali

1871-1912 Global European Imperialism at its height: The "scramble for Africa" proceeds. 1879 1880s (circa)

Rabi B. Fadl Allah begin to build Empire (Present-day Chad/Nigeria) European imperial scramble for Africa begins

1884-5

Berlin Conference: Intense rivalries among Belgium, , , Great Britain, Italy, Spain, and Portugal for additional African territory, and the ill-defined boundaries of their various holdings, instigate the Berlin conference.

1893

Kanem-Bornu defeated by Rabih b. fadl Allah

1893

French defeat Fuuta Tooro Empire

1895

forms federation of colonies that become French West Africa.

1903

British conquered the Sokoto Caliphate

1904

French create federation of French West Africa

1914-1918 West-Africa troops fight on both side in World War I. 1920s

Pan-Africanism and the Diaspora. Pan-Africanist ideas of unity, shared identity and roots among Africans and their descendents of the Diaspora* .

1920

Pan-African Congresses meet in Paris, fueled by anti-colonial unrest and African nationalism esp. among black missionaryand Western-educated elites. This unrest is expressed in strikes in Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Nigeria of British West Africa

1930s

Negritude, a French-language literary movement, began in 1930s Paris of modernism, surrealism, and jazz among French colonial subjects most in Paris to finish their educations. Leopold Sedar Senghor, was a leader and militant communicator of the concept of Negritude, Poets Leon-Gontran Damas, Birago Diop, David Diop, and Martinique-born Aime Cesaire also associated with the movement

1950s

Cheich Hamidou kane (Senegal) , with Ambiguous Advanture, and Camara Laye (Guinea) alomg with Cameroon's Mongo Beti and Ferdinand Oyono are remarkable writers on cultural chocks and psychological insights resulting from the influence of colonization.

1939-1945 West-African troops fight on allied side in World War II 1950:1970

West-African Nations become independent from European Colonial rules

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1960s1980s

Recurring drought causes famine in Sahelian countries

1963

Organization of African Unity founded

1974

Nigeria becomes leading oil producer in Africa

1976

Cheikh Anta Diop (Senegal, 1923-1986), publishes the influential and controversial book, The African Origin of Civilization.

1990

Dramatic freeing of long-time black political prisoner Nelson Mandela by Afrikaner President de Klerk in South Africa.

1994

Wide spread unrest and economic hardship in Francophone countries after CFA franc is devaluated.

2001

The African Union (AU) replaces the Organization of African Unity (OAU) after 38 years in existence.

--------------------------Time Line Charts Africa in Antiquity, 500 B.C. - 400 A.D. Nok Culture 500 B.C.-200 A.D. Africa in the Middle Ages ANCIENT

KINGDOMS

Ghana Tekruur9th7th-13th 16th c. c.

& EMPIRES Almoravids11th12th c.

KanemBornu11th12th c.

13th- 16th Century Mali 13th-16th c.

Songhay 15th-16th c.

17th- 18th Century

Fuuta Tooro 17701900

NEW

KINGDOMS

Bhundu17th19th c.

Fuuta Jalon 1725-1899

Segou Massina181816501853 1818

Kaarta 17531893

19th Century Sokoto

Adamawa19th-

Ashanti 17th

Liberia 1821- Sierra Leone

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18041903

20th c.

c.-1901

1847

1808-1880

Colonial Period & Independence Niger since 1960

Nigeria since 1960

CameroonSince 1960

Cote Ghana since Mali since D'Ivoire 1957 1960 since 1960

Dahomey/Benin since 1960

Chad Since 1960

Guinea Chad Cape Verde Senegal Bissau since Since since 1975 since 1960 1975 1960

Togo since 1960

Burkina Faso since 1960

Sierra Leone since 1961

Guinea since 1958

Gambia since 1965

Mauritania since 1965

Introduction to the Fulani Family It is important know that all African cultures are characterized by their fluidity. Sociologically, acculturation, assimilation and adaptation are always taken place among Fulani. In addition to the changes brought about by human survival needs, and changing times, the local African governments are constantly effecting changes among the people. These changes are placing on the Fulani forces that significantly affect their lifestyle. Traditional occupations such as: farming, fishing, artisans, jewelers, weavers, pottery makers all introduce variations in the basic family living. It is important first to understand the social group which each family belongs to, in order to truly be able to appreciate the family structure.

Therefore, generalization about any aspects of Fulani culture is not easily

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made. However, traditionally, the foundation for the basic unit of social and economic life is laid with the legal union of man and wife in marriage. Through their offspring and through possible subsequent marriages, the household will continue its expansion and may form a compound family consisting of the household head, his several wives and their respective children. The Fulani family is patriarchal. The husband is Jom Galle, head of the family, while the wife is Jom Suudu, head of the household. The husband/father is the one to make all the important decisions and represent the family. The decisions of the father can be discussed, but the father is always to be respected and never to be proven wrong or embarrassed in front of his wives or children. The father/husband is considered the provider of food, clothes, shelter, and medicine. Women exert a certain amount of power in the day to day running of the house especially during the frequent absences of the father. It is frequent to have husband and wife tly assume full responsibility for the household in such matters as herd and land that is sufficient for their sustenance. Often, it is the wives who get involved in various money making adventures to make ends meet. This section will introduce the Household, the Daily Life, the Social Life, and the Family relations. The Elders, Women and Youth and all aspects of Village Life will be described. Additionally, cultural notes highlight important aspects which are not readily recognized and appreciated by non-Africans.

Kinship-Enndham The idea of family and kinship bonds IS Cherished by all Fulani. This idea revolve around the lineage legnol, Kinship jiidugal, Relatedness bandiraagal And Many Other of endearment Which are Held in high regard by the Fulani. The basic elements of kinship Among Fulani are based on generations, age and gender. The Seniority and kinship are vital to the structure of Fulani ménage. Being patrilineal and patrilocal, celebrities gain Their last name Yettore, By Which They Are Identified first. The Summary of Organizational lineage IS Traced from a common ancestor and His descendants. They Live In The Sami compound and Cooperate in daily life activities. A cluster of lineages constituted a clan. Kinship and regional groups Regulate Conflict Within and Between groups. Politically a leader of a territorial ARDHO group plays a major role. Patrilineages serie important part in Regulating, a day to day matters, and control of cattle, marriages, and inheritance. All activities related to kinship are seen in the nature of the steady state Fulani culture, and are summed up in the label of Pulaaku. The code of conduct Pulaaku stresses the symbolic importance of cattle, the respect of senior citizens and the love of mother. It Also Portray the perfect Fulani have one who's stoic, reserved, patient and gentle in Demeanor.

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Kinship Terminology Fulani kinship term could "ambiguous prononcer to People of Other Cultures, Because The kinship can Be Used to Refer to Specifying a range of personal gold person. Fulani preferred to call someone by a kinship term whether or not related They Are. For example Baaba IS father goal it is Possible to Call Also Baaba all related and friends of the father. Same goes for Neena gold mother brother / sister migniradho Gold's / daughter bhidho. Another interesting aspect Is The use of the diminutive el and the possessive pronoun am, Which are combined as Elam and added at the end of a word to stress kindness and good feelings about somebody or something. For example mignelam Which mean my dear little brother / sister. The Use of el by Itself IS diminutive and am by Itself IS possessive. Purpose and consoling the MOST interesting kinship are kawiragal and dendhiraagal Kawiragal The kaaw gold Gorgol Relationships are very special in the Fulani society. Kaaw Is The brother of the mother or the Maternal Uncle, "whereas Gorgol IS Used for the sister of the father or paternal role of a aunt.The Gorgol Becomes more apparent at the time of marriages. She organizes and arrangement Many aspects of the wedding. As the chief confidant, she Gives advice relevant future flange. The Gorgol Also Does the final preparations Including bathing and clothing, Before the flange moves to the home of the groom. A kaaw IS regarded one of the dearest mum on Which a child can have. This IS leap Further Strengthened by the fact That Has the birth name for the phrasal Child Is Often the Name of Loved uncle. The uncle Becomes Therefor the tokora Child Of The Golden Loved namesake. A tokora IS responsible for buying gifts is the day of the naming ceremony, as well as "for-fulfilling certain droits THROUGHOUT the life of the child. Many in this respects The Relationship Between Uncle and His nephews IS Closer Than That Between the Children and Their biological father. This uncle Has Many Responsibilities and obligations nieces and nephews Towards Loved. He Contributes to Their naming ceremony and later to Their wedding. Often drake Their main adviser and initials' em in Many Aspects of Life. Theys May inherit cattle-through Him. Theys May go to Him in time of Need, and Move event has been "Into Loved compound.It Said That It Is The Loved uncle Who Will Guide nephew or niece to Paradise in the here after. Dendiraagal Is very Valued Dendiraagal relationship to Fulani society. Usually the term translated as cousin in dendirabhe Fulani Has A Broader Meaning. The Meaning Can Be Explained in Three levels: the first level IS dendiraabhe kosam. The first level Concerns particularly the link Between the respective offspring of a brother sister gold. In this society the term cousin IS applicable to the Children of the brothers of the sisters of the mother or father ET. The Children of the sisters of the mother and the brothers of the father are brother and sister Called, not cousin in Fulani. The respective descendants of the uncle and aunt are the Called, Collectively dendiraabhe gold cousins. The second level of Dendiraagal includes people Who are not related purpose Biologically Have

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Their last name dendiraagu relationship. Finally, The Third Kind of Dendiraagal Is The Relationship Between clans or ethnic groups. See Cousinhood.

Family Relations Cousinhood: Relationship Between Last Names An interesting custom in the Futa IS sanakuyaagal (Dendiraagal) Or joking Between clans. Here's how it works: the tease the Diallos Baldes gold Bahsas And The Sows joke with the Barrys. For example, a Barry Might call a thief Sow (gujjo) Gold Donkey (Mbaba) And Otherwise ridiculous Their character and lineage, all in good fun. The cross-cousins do not Have to Know Each Other well-to-play start insulting Each Other. Family terminology The words brother, father, mother, uncle, etc.. are Applied e loosely in Fulani society. Someone's brother May in fact Be Loved half-brother, cousin, a distant relative, someone from the Sami village, or just a good buddy. Father can mean uncle grandfather gold; my child "could be my sound, daughter, nephew, grandchild, etc.. If you want to Establish the exact genealogical relationship, You Need to ask questions Specifying: Do You Have the Same Mother? Is he your mother's older brother? Family Relations The Principles for Organizing Family Relationships are quite different from That of the Western countries. Howeve, There are a few "general principles Which Will Help You Understand how families are arranged. In the first place, Family Relationships are arranged to LUKAS classificatory lines, Rather Than Simply biological lines. This Means That There ya une CF firefighters group or class of people "Who can fill" any relationship slot. For example, one Does not Say Baaba (Father) only to one's biological father. All of the father's brothers are Also Called Baaba, And They Have Special Privileges and Responsibilities visa vis Their Niece and nephews. This title of Baaba furthermore May Be Extended to include all of the father's cousins, all of Loved And Then age-mates! One says neen (Mother) to one's biological mother and all of Her Sisters. If It Is Important to Distinguish the biological parents, you can say Baaba am tigi (My real father), etc.. Secondly, relationships are Distinguished Between the mother's side of the family and the father's side. Importance of Names Names are more Than What goes Into annum Identity Card. Names are Given

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to Strengthen family, friendship and community. Also Reflect Naming Practices in the sense Which IS EACH person Understood, at a "fundamental level, to Be a living manifestation of the cumulative force of paternal descent Loved. Men's and women's names Consist of Their Given names Followed by Their father's last name Yettoode. This Is Usually the Extent to Which a Given name is for social or legal purposes. Purpose is personal Understood's full name is to go on and on, from father to father ad infinitum. Communities in West-Africa, the Fulani have SUCH, Often people ask Foreigners to choose a local name by Which They Will Be Called. It Is very important to people "That They Be Able to and use your name. This helps Strengthen the friendship Between the foreigner and the local population. The importance of names and naming Shows Up in Several Ways. The first event in a Child's Life Is his or her naming ceremony. This is the underinsured motorist seventh day after a child's birth. Children are named after the parents' brothers, sisters, mother, father, or in Honor of someone else. Both mother and father choose a first name to "give to the child. Howeve, in the patrilineal society, the last name of the father Is That. For example, for a boy, the mother can choose Demba, and the father Yero. The Mother's Side of the Family and Her Friends Will Call the child Demba, On The Other Hand, the father and His Family and Friends Will Call Him Yero. The person from Whom the name is phrasal and all the persons of the same first name are the child's tokora, Or namesake. A tokora IS responsible for buying some gifts are the day of the naming ceremony, as well as "for-fulfilling certain droits THROUGHOUT the life of the child. Sharing a common name Creates a special bond. The family name of An individual "Often Will Tell You Which ethnic group from HE IS. A sample of Fulani names is: Jallo (gold Kah), Soh, Bah (gold Balde), Ban, Sih, Dem Kaan Njaay, Sekka, Caam, An, Jaaw, etc.. One of inmate itted Showing respect for Another person Loved Is To call out a greeting family name When did you meet and have a good-bye as you are leaving. For examples of Fulani first names click here.

We are related, you and I. When you meet someone, after the Preliminary greetings, you Will Be Asked your last name and your town of origin. The Hand Reason For That Is To Identify a Potential Relationship Between Gold Lineage celebrities. Genealogy Is a Highly Valued tool for this kind of exchange. In the olden days people Knew Their genealogy and very well could "Quickly Identify Relationship Between families. Howeve, then this is now a dying art. Sending Kids we Errands In MOST African cultures, a year can ask "any adult child to run for a year Errand Them, Regardless Of whether or not the Child Is related to 'em, or

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whether They Know the child at all. Child in this context means clustering anyone younger and / or lower in status "clearly Than militaire armes. In the absence of telephones, faxes, vehicles, etc.. Often then this is the MOST effective way to send a message, gold candles Obtain sugar at the last minute, transport heavy objects, etc.. A lot of Some reward 'may be appropriate "Is Not Obligatory goal. Visiting the sick The Fulani, like MOST people, like to Be When They Are Sick visited. It is nice to Bring food gifts ou autres. In Case of Illness Involving year has extended hospital stay and / or the purchase of medicine, a gift of money IS appropriée. Are you better? When you tell someone you're sick, They Will ask you: Are you feeling better? If you answer That, no, you're not at all Better yet, They Will sponds: OK. But are you feeling better? The correct answer is yes, Regardless of how you feel. They Are Wishing You well, not really inquiring as to your health. By Saying Yes you are Really Saying If God wills it I Will soon be better.

Fulani Household The family constituted the foundation of the society. The legal union of man and wife in marriage Is a moral and social act Highly RespectEd by Fulani. Marriage therefore Generally Within The IS group or clan. Through Their offspring can Subsequent marriages and-through, the ménage Will ITS continues expansion and May form a Compound Consisting of the family head ménage, Loved Several Wives and Their respective children. When the first child gets married, the ménage Enter a new phase. It May Still expand as the result of new births to junior wives Mainly, the goal at the time même ménage Will Be subject to reductions. Eventually, complete dissolution underinsured motorist When All Have married offspring. Man and Wives Then take up his residence with Their Eldest Usually Which Will mean Several homesteads and distribution over the separation of a Man from Loved junior wives. The elders Will Spend Their Last Days On The Periphery Of The homestead of Their Sons; est aussi cette WHERE They Are Buried. It Is of great Interest to see What Happens Between the Two extremes of the Life History of simple and compound families, the major hazards to ASSESS to Which They Are Exposed DURING Their growth to maturity and Subsequent dissolution. For a ménage a year to act as independent self unites That Is Sufficient for Labor and food at all seasons There Should Be a particular Balance Between the human group and the herd associated with it. While the large herd Should Be Enough to Meet the Needs of the subsistence group, It Is Equally clear That There Should Be Sufficient Humans tend to the cattle and to take full advantage of Their Resources.

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Status of Women Fulani Women Celebrated for Their beauty and grace, the Fulani women are the pride and the gem of the Celebrated for Their beauty and grace, the Fulani women are the pride and the gem of the Fulani society. With Their thin, aquiline facial features, Fulani women are Known for Their attractive dress and hairstyles.

Their exquisite gold earrings off Adornments of Known As kootone kang, heavy silver rings and bangles, and hairdos That Incorporate large amber beads are well reconnu Beyond Their traditional borders. Their clothes Often Have a background color of yellow and / or red. Their hair IS long braided am and is 5 long braids That Into Either hang from gold Sometimes Their Heads are looped On The Sides. It Is common for the women and girls around new serie Attached to Their braids. Some corners of contention are very old and Have Been Down In The ED family.The women enjoyMany are wearing bracelets Their Wrists. Like the men, the Women Have Their faces around you Markings Their Eyes and Mouth That They Were Given as children. Marriage Fulani women enjoy Greater Independence and Freedom of Movement Than Surrounding women of Muslim populations. Women are segregated "Sometimes men from you as far as Circumstances Allowed. Traditionally, When Being MOST marriages arranged by the families or the clan, A Woman Has Little Selecting a choice of husband in Fulani Traditional Societies. Howeve, There are a few "exceptions. In the "celebrated well Wodhaabe, Women Have a Choice in Selecting Their Gerewol husband" during the dance. In the western cities WHERE IS influences prevalence, women are increasingly Choosing Their husband Without the

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assistance of the family. Although Divorce Is Easy to Obtain if the marriages Does not work, Marriage Is a Highly Valued social act. Couples and Their family to go to plan weddings Much length, commits wide dépenses and Performance elaborated wedding ceremonies. Marriages are arranged and Organized largely by women. In fact, women take care of the great majorité Of The Family And The village activities. In Addition To Her ménage SUCH're cooking chores, fetching water cleaning, milking and butter and milk product preparation, Often she hold to have basketball SUCH Specifying specialty weaving, calabash decorating, cloth dyeing. Their product selling at the market place is well activité économique year Appreciated by the family. Traditionally women do not Own cattle, howeve this is changing. The family supplemental revenu IS MOST of the time in the control of women. Perhaps women Is The MOST important? S role as custodians of the family traditions, history and lineage. Aspects of Polygamy Fulani Polygamy ya une ancient form of marriage practiced by Many societies. Many religions Have Encouraged the practice of polygamy, the Hindu religion DID not set limits to the number of wives a man May have. The Muslim religion is the Other Hand, allow a Man to Have Many have as four wives. As Fulani Muslim men can marry up to oven wives. Status of Women Several studies That Have shown, although women Represent Half of the World? S population and one Third of the official Labor Force, THEY RECEIVE only 1% of the total global income and less than 1% Own of the World? S property. In a ménage Given, A Woman Has Often revenu less, less and less nutrition Wealth Than a man, and yet the ménage IS Mostly, if not Solely, we depend That Woman? S Labor for the generation of products and income. Cette est aussi true in West African Society Including the Fulani. The status of women can Be Understood in Two point of views: Islam and Modernity. Since MOST Fulani are Muslims, the status of Fulani women can Be Better Understood from an Islamic point of view. Before the arrival of Islam, women in nomadic societies Most Likely Did Not occupy a high social status. Against Injustice Was Probably more women Pronounced DURING pre Islamic times, When Were the worst conditions Their THEY "could be. Women Were Deprived of Everything: The Right to Life (as a daughter), to honor, to Fair Treatment, to protection, to ownership and so on., Mothers and wives have. Then IS regarded Islam as a religion That Significantly Improved the condition of women. First of all, female infanticide and Islam Abolished Equal Rights Gave women to men. Malthus, have a daughter, wife and mother, a woman Was Endowed with SUCH Many rights have the right to inheritance, maintenance, education, protection, freedom of speech, the right to take part in activities SUCH Many have wars and so on (see table below: women and Islam). Islam grants the wife the right to dissolve the marriage-through What Is Known As Khulaa and she can sue for divorce in a case of cruelty or desertion Without Any Other

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reasons. Among the rights attributed, to women in Islam are the right to choose a husband and the right to education. Women are free to choose Their Religion in Islam and are Encouraged to contribute "With Their opinions and ideas. In short, Islam Gave 'em all human, civil, social, politique and Economic rights. Practical Knowledge African Women Have a deep and concrete KM of their Environment. In pastoral societies have SUCH the Fulani, Women Have Detailed KM of the dynamics of Their ecosystem and of the influence of livestock on it. THEY can monitor the condition of range-through milk production, animal year? S Appearance, wool production, manure production, etc.. Women Have A detailed frequently KM of Water Resources, Including Their quality and quantity. Theys Understand certain animal diseases, symptoms, treatments and pharmacology, and herding practices Designed to Reduce disease incidence. Poverty and Marginalization Poverty and marginalization of Even male-headed Households HAS year added adverse effect on women. In the Case of Marginalized pastoralists Recently, Many of the traditional systems of Wealth Redistribution Have Broken Down, and social networks are not as dependable As They Once Were. Issues and Obstacles The recognition of the human rights for all: rights to life, Dignity, Justice, freedom and Equal Access to public goods and économiques Including education, health-care and banking are the "fundamental Prerequisites To The Successful development of the continent. Yet, African Women Still Do face particularly great challenges. Adult female literacy in 1992 Was Only 45% in sub-Saharan Africa, as Compared to a 59% average for all Developing Countries. Maternal rats mortalité Averaged 606 per 100.000 live births over the period 1980-1992, as Compared with seven for the U.S. and 351 for All Developing Countries. African Women's Work For Some s to 80% of food production, little benefit derived THEY goal from government programs favoring international gold cash crops for export. Women are particularly vulnerable Victims of the continent's internal Conflicts and Natural Disasters Drought and floods have SUCH. Levels of domestic violence against women are very high, and Even less well Reported Than in Many Other Parts of the World. Howeve, In some areas, African Women Have Made Significant advances. Women's groups Focused on legal reform, violence against women, conflictresolution, economic empowerment and Other exits are Growing around the continent. Over the decades Since 1960, the gap in primary school have narrowed rats Enrollment Enrollment Grew Much More Rapidly Than for Boys for Girls. For sub-Saharan Africa as a Whole, by 1990 primary school female

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HAD Enrollment Reached 85% Of That of boys. In government, African Countries are ahead of the rest of Much of the world. Five African Countries Are Among the top 15 in the world percentage of women in National Parliaments Their ranking ahead of Many Developed Countries. Have women benefited too Fulani of the progress to Some Extent. Fulani Women Have Occupied high government and business jobs. Nevertheless Still There Are Problems persist Including land tenure system, education, transition from pastoral life to urban life and access to government facilities. . Women and Islam "Full Person "Spiritual Equality "Can Initiate Divorce "Right to Inheritance

-A Woman's Testimony Is Worth Half of a Man? S, Especially In Civil boxes. -A woman's share of inheritance Year Is One-half of a male relative? S in the Sami category. Polygamy Issues.

"Freedom to Own property

The husband-Is The head of the ménage, Is The Final Authority, and "Freedom to Own and Operate Business Obedience Has due and cooperation from Loved wife. "Equal Pay "Their Freedom to use money as THEY please "Total Control of Their Wealth "Right to vote "Right to keep name after marriage Their Own "Women Have the right to remarry and are Encouraged to do so

-Men must pay a dowry to Their Wives. This money goes to the wife, not Her Father, and It Is Her private property to do with As She Sees said. Moreover, She is Able to keep it Even after a divorce. -Women can inherit property from Husbands, fathers, brothers, Mothers, and sons, and It Is Their personal property to keep and use as THEY see fit.

"A Woman Has final approval" was arranged by marriage partner Her parents.

Adapted from: Women Livestock Managers in the Third World by M. Niamir-Fuller (IFAD, 1994) and Other Sources

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Role of Women Traditionally, the Fulani woman's roles included the care Have all of ménage tasks. Several hours Theys Spend Preparing the evening meal. Theys retrieve water from the well has bucket or Two at a time and Often must carry it on Their Heads over long distance back to Their home. These women gather firewood Also, milk shake in numb to make butter and pound millet by hand as part of labor-intensive cooking practices. Also responsible for ltr laundry, Collecting wood, caring for small children and shopping for ingredients for Their cooking. In addition to the thesis tasks Also Spend time working women batik and tie dye, and weaving with dried grass to make mats or Other Useful Items. Many of 'em sell milk or milk products in order to make money and purchase personal and family needs. Fulani women, Who are in charge of building Often the family tents or temporary shelters, weave wall and floor mats. Beside nomadic architecture, They specialize in the decoration of wooden bowls and Calabash (lahal kosam). Often seen They Are Carrying Their milk products are stacked in thirds Their Heads in calabash bowls. Calabash are pyro-Engraved with a combination of figurative and abstract motifs and colored with pigments. In the Fulani cow-centered culture, milk bowls Also important are the objects for ménage. They Are Used as storage containers for fresh, curdled milk and grain. An artifact, symbol of the pastoral life and of the cooperation Between Men Who keep the herd and milk the cows Who women, the lahal kosam Encapsulate Fulani identity. Because Of Their delicate chiseling and exquisite decorative Treatment, and calabash bowls Could Be regarded as the true focus of aesthetic efforts of the Fulani people The men take care of the cattle and the women take care of the dairy products, all ménage chores, meal making, milking cattle, selling milk products And They Are not Allowed to get involved in grazing, movement or selling the cattle. The division of work IS very strict Used To Be Between Men and women. Howeve Things Are Changing Fast. A study cited the Case of the Fulani in northern Nigeria. Here Traditionally Women Have Dominated the dairy production and marketing system, although men milk the animals. Fulani Women Have considerable milk-processing expertise. THEY can transform milk at least six Into different products and are Constantly Experimenting With New Ones. Their role prononcer Though May did menial Times, They Always Have Carried On The Burden of the family survival. These elusive, delicate, and Frail looking women are the backbone of the Fulani culture. THEY carry the family Wealth Literally, traditions and aspirations are Their Heads. One em is the tradition, the prosperity, and the survival of the group. Despite Countless barriers, Fulani women and Their African sisters are responsible for over 80% of the food production, 80% of the water management and 100% of child rearing in Many Parts of West Africa.

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Youth Children Are The recipient of the cultural legacy of all societies. Theys representing The pivotal and crucial gateway for cultural survival. Howeve, for African children, and Specially Fulani, There Are Competing and relentless forces bearing on Their Bringing up. Traditional Way of Life Is Competing Against, foreign religions, foreign Cultures and Modernity and Not Always winning. All thesis influences to fight African children live in Contradictory and Confusing paths ways. In Some boxes are assimilating well the Children of thesis Many signals, goal MOST of the time Have Been weak results. The life style of Fulani, nomadic gold Settled, by and large Has changed Because Of The Effects of Several external events and pressures. It Is Difficult to Pinpoint exact causes and times of change, Since It Has Been Generally a gradual process instigated by the Interplay of Several different factors "Applying pressure on the traditional Sami child education at the time.

Education of the Young in Traditional Knowledge is based on on-the-job training, lessons Given any rights of initiation, and children's games. Traditional Education in General Than Costs less modern education, and That Has the advantage are not the Children Withdrawn from the work force. Formal Schools Provide the needed literacy in modern times, Their goal is Too foreign content to the Pastoralist. Mostly irrelevant Theys teach values, Rather Than the Value of Land, traditions and cultural survival. Educational Traditional techniques May Still Be intact strength goal IS ITS Rapidly Diminishing. In this section, Their conditions, Their Education and initiations are Examined. Family Education Fulani children begin to learn Their roles very early. While Fulani Their families would prefer children to Islamic schools expected to study and memorize Koranic verses, Many Can not AFFORD the fees of the schools. Boys Follow Their fathers to learn how to tend the cattle or work in the millet field. When the boys Reach the age of about 10 They Are in charge of could Following The cattle. Girls Also help with the cattle if only aim Until about the age of 9 or 10. Other common jobs for young girl is gathering firewood and Helping to look after Their younger siblings. The traditional rites of age for

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girls HAD largely fallen out of practice by the time African Countries Gained independence in 1960. Howeve, Girls Are Taught By The older women how to take care of the home and how to Be a good wife When They Are Married. Character Building Vocabulary As part of the training Pulaaku for character building, some concepts are Introduced to the young early in life: Courage: (Jaambaraagal) The sense of courage and Chivalry IS Most often illustrated in Legends (Daarol). This ideal form of behavior in the society IS Known As jaambaraagal. It Is a spirit or ethic of Behavior in Which one shows courage, reserve, hospitality, and Generosity. To Be Called a jaambaro someone Who Is To Be ired thesis possessive traits. Hospitality: (Teddugal) To Treat someone with respect, high regard, to respect someone, by extension, to show hospitality (In this context, means clustering Showing hospitality Providing the guest (kodho) with the best possible accommodations, killing a chicken, sheep, gold bull for Him, and giving him / her a gift of money, clothing, grain, etc.. When ET leaves. One of the true marks of a noble and unfailing hospitality Was Loved Generosity.) Shame: GACC GACC ya une action WHICH IS shaming gold Shameful. That is: to show cowardice, to fail to Properly welcome a guest, to fail to Be Generous Towards someone of a lower social rank, to Be selfish, or to be jealous. Self-Control: Kersa To Have a Proper Sense of Shame, modesty, reserve, stoicism Kerse, shame, modesty, reserve, shyness, self-control. This is a quality of character WHICH IS Much Appreciated Ful6e in culture. It Implies a sense of self-control and self-restraint, "as well as a sense of Pride and Dignity. Someone with Kersa never begs From Another, goal Is Always Ready To Give When To Him Another edible. Through a high degree of self-control ET can hide fear, bread, hunger and thirst, fatigue, etc.. It Is a quality associated with WHICH IS and Demanded from the noble class Toorobhe and Fulani). One of the worst insult That can Be directed towards a new noble born person Is To Say 0 hersataa (He has no shame). It Implies A Lack of Dignity and proper decorum, or someone Who Can not Withstand pressure (social or physical). Traditional Education Children begin to Acquire KM of Their ancestral ties to Fulani family When THEY

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Accompany and assist in Their parents work and social interaction. Theys family follow the cattle; THEY travel to the farm, to market and to the compounds of friends and relative. Ltr feels Running Errands are Deliver to food, to fetch water, to bid a neighbor visit, TO PERFORM Countless tasks Assisting in the progress of daily life and sociality. Through this participation in quotidian existence THEY year gain Emerging sense of the cultural environment. Theys discover the names of places and in doing so learn That residential compounds are Known by reference to the Men Who Originally cleared the bush and the site Established as cultural space. It Is a Reality Lived Which Develops over time-through everyday experience. Have the child Navigates this field, Tending to the small Responsibilities Assigned to him or her, this landscape of names Begins to take shape: the names of the dead, Of Those Who herded the cattle people, cleared the land, built the compound, Farmed Conceived the land and the people. The descriptive KM, Technology and Organizations Used by pastoralists to manage natural resources Their, Have Been ED Evolved and down the generations. In general, young children start to learn About their physical environment as soon As They learn to play games with clay or wooden animals, twigs, fat, etc.. The games Usually Reflect real-life experiences, Being Chased by're SUCH lions guarding imaginary golden cows Against raiders. As soon as They Are Old Enough, and Pastoral Between the age groups varied, They start the long process of apprenticeship and learn-by-doing, "under the guidance of Either Their father elder brother gold, gold Under griots, Blacksmith, and Other Specialized younger craftsmen (see BOX).

When a boy Reach The Age of seven gold eight Loved father Will Provide Him With A sawru a polished long stick. These ET learns to use in contests with Other boys, to use in games of Koora gold bugaal katti. He Also May Develop Loved hunting skills using the stick, Because ET must Eventually kill a small pray. Boys over 15 years old do Their Work "under the direction and supervision of Their fathers. THEY dig wells and water the herds, while younger brothers Their help by running Errands for em. Others rituals, Which mark the coming of age of young Fulani boys include initiation ceremonies have SUCH the gerewol, The Sharo and Other herding events. "During the Sharo, boys are hit with a thick stick, and are not allowed to show signs of pain. Masina Fulani transhumance "during the young adults must leave home to take Their family's cattle Hundreds of miles away and return for grazing Successfully and Safely home after Several months in the Sahel. Children's plays Reflect the adult world. For example, Fulani children play a

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game of hyena, sheep and shepherd ², or play with clay or wooden toys and animals Representing plants3. In West Africa, Traditional Education is based on informal apprenticeship with kin and early participation in the work force. Special skills, SUCH as medicine, music, crafts, etc.. Acquired-through are more formal apprenticeship with Specialized persons. Other special skills, tree felling have SUCH, hunting, and metallurgy are Taught by Religious Leaders DURING ceremonies4 initiation. Among the Fulani of northern Senegal, children start at a very pastoral droits young age (5-6), Naturally Progressing from their play to Actually guarding calves in the compound5. Almost in all groups, the father Teaches Loved sounds by going out first with 'em either' giving hands-on responsibility ", and the Knowledge is firmly Already Established by ages 9 or 10. The Knowledge of range and livestock husbandry Among the Fulani IS ED we have young boys (7-8 years) are Taken to camp and learn from first hand experience Which fats are good, noxious, etc.. At 8-10 years old, children start to learn Wodaabe about herding by Being Assigned to watch over the calves near the camp. Between 10-12 years THEY start to herd Shoat alone in the bush, and at 15 THEY herd cattle on Their Own. Wodaabe girls start at 9-10 years to make butter, at 11-12 years to pound millet, and at 14-15 years to milk cows. The Fulani of Mauritania Say That the initiation of the Pastoralist begins at the entrance to the livestock kraal, and ends "at its exit, ie at age 63. Consider Theys pastoral education to Encom Three phases: initiation Which Takes the first 21 years, Which Takes the driving range next 21 years, and teaching Which Takes the last 21 years11. Formal Education In West Africa There Are Three Fundamentally separate education systems: the indigenous system, Quran schools, and formal European-style education institutions. In the Rural Areas the WHERE majorité Lived, Learned children the skills of farming and Other work, "as well as the droits of Adulthood, from participation in the community. Often this process Was Supplemented by age-based schools in Which groups of young boys in community Responsibilities Were instructed by mature men. Apprentice Systems Were Widespread THROUGHOUT all occupations, the trainee Provided service to the teacher over a period "of years and it Loved Eventually Struck out own. Herding, cultivation, building trades, and all indigenous crafts and services from leather work to medicine ED Were down in families and Acquired-through apprenticeship training as well. Islamic Education Was part of Religious Duty. Learned Children up to one or Two chapters of the Quran by rote from a local gold Čierno mallams, Or Religious Teacher, Before They Were Five gold six years old. Religious learning included the Arabic alphabet and the UK & to read and copy texts in the language, Along with giving further texts required for daily Prayers. Any Islamic community Provided instruction in SUCH a teacher's house, was sold to a tree Thoroughfare, or in a local mosque. This primary level Was the MOST widespread. A smaller number of young Muslims giving further wished Who,

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Who cam gold more gold from wealthier homes Educated, Derwent is to examine the meanings of the Arabic texts. Later, grammar, syntax, arithmetic, algebra, logic, Rhetoric, jurisprudence, and theology Were added; thesis subjects required specialist teachers at the advanced level. After this level, students Derwent Traditionally it to one of the famous Islamic centers of learning. For The Vast Majority, Muslim Education Was Delivered "under the tutelage of informally ciernos, Mallam gold ulama, Religious Scholars Who Specialized in learning and teaching. THROUGHOUT the colonial period ", a series of formal Muslim schools set up and run Were on European lines. These Schools Were Established in Almost all major cities. These Were notable in Kano, WHERE Islamic brotherhoods year Developed impressive number of schools. Theys catered to the Children of the Devout and the well-to-do Who wished new serie Their Children Educated in the New and Necessary European learning, goal firmly Within a Religious context. Suche Were Influential schools have a form of local private school Retained That the predominance of Religious gains Modernized Within a school system. Western-style education Came to West Africa with the missionaries and the colonial istration in the mid-Nineteenth Century. Progress in Education Was slow steady aim THROUGHOUT the colonial era Until the End of World War II. By 1950 Many Developed Countries HAD a three-tiered system of primary, secondary, and higher education based on the British, French, Spanish or Portuguese models of wide participation at the bottom, sorting and Vocational Training Into academic at the secondary level, and Higher Education for Small Destined for elite leadership. The languages of instruction in local languages Were not aim en français, French, Spanish and Portuguese Universal Primary Education policy in official Became Many West African countries. Secondary and postsecondary Levels Also Grew dramatically. The Almudos

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As with all Moslem boys, Education Begins with the study of the Koran WHICH IS Taught by Either the father or by the Čierno (also Called marabout). Students in Islamic schools, are Called gold Talabas Alumdos. Almudos are young boys, Generally Between 8 to 15 of age. The boys learn the Koran from the marabout and pay for Loved Him by sharing the Teachings Proceeds of Their daily begging. Almudos are found in all West African cities with large Muslim populations Perhaps due to the marginal nature of the land THEY occupy It Has Been a long tradition of the Fulani men and young boys That leave the village soon after the harvest in November and Themselves Elsewhere Until They Are needed for the next farming season. When a Village Has A bad harvest Many of the young boys will be a sealed envelope Their Parents to the village marabout Who Will take a year to urban area em Where They can survive by begging Until Conditions Improve in Their home villages. That the almudos stand out as the MOST Disadvantaged Children in Urban environments IS Because They Are Made Visible Rural Poverty in the city. Children in the almudos' home villages are in Generally no purpose if They Are Better not visible in the city streets Where They Can Be seen by the urban population .. These Children Who Live Mostly in the street do not SEEM to Be Affected By The Typical street kid SUCH Problems have Criminality cynicism and Other Bad Behavior. THEY SEEM Goal To Be Remarkably well balanced, Resourceful and hardworking. Nevertheless, the 1970s and 80s Years of Drought Has created annually in the numbers of grandir talibes. Ltr REDUCED TO begging and living harsh realities. The marabout That argues The Guiding Principal of the education of the talibe Is To learn the purpose Quoran Also to learn the Meaning of Suffering in order to Be Ready to Face Life's Circumstances. Howeve, THEY APPEAR to Be Problems related to child abuse and neglect.

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Wisdom Voices The Ancestors Africans in general and in Particular Fulani are Strongly Attached to the idea of Ancestors. With a deep hunger to Know Their heritage, They cherish Their ancestry to the facts of divinizing. The Ancestors are seen as the link Between the past and present, the vehicle Between here and infinity and the holder of all That Is Learned. During, Conflicts, the Wisdom of the Ancestors Sought after IS to Bring Back Peace. During, Period of hardship, the acumen of Ancestors IS Invoked to Bring Back abundance. Ancestors teach practical ways of transforming Difficulties Into endless possibilities, the purpose offulfilling of life, and of Showing the way to happiness and peace. The Living Wisdom of African People is practical, feeton-the-ground and concrete. It's a beautiful and simple philosophy day to day based on experience and grounded in practicality. The Ancestor Teach That It Is essential to learn to Communicate with Each Other, about the basics of life, about culture and Its Practices Older Relatives For African people in Much Has the family "wider circle of Suggests Than the Word in Western cultures. In traditional societies, the family includes children, parents, grandparents, uncles, aunt, brothers and sisters Who May Have Their Own Children and Other immediate relative. This extended family can from few "Have to Several dozen of persons. It Is The Practice in Fulani society "as well as others to send children to live for months or years with Some older relative. Of all the family are the MOST RespectEd the grandparents. Tano Is a word for grandparents in the Fulani language. The word Refers to the grandparents as well as "direct to Their siblings and Their fellow agemate. Are knowledgeable about the elder of the family history and history of the lineage. In practical he / she Has a great role to play in Educating the child, as well as "in Cultivating Peace and Harmony Within The Family and the community. The legendary Amadou Ba oz Hampate Said That Every Man That old Died in Africa IS equivalent to a library Being burn. In Many Parts of Africa, elders Have mastered memorization techniques and Have Become the living repositories of the Collective Wisdom Accumulated by the community. Ltr human like walking libraries, and are Able to put something of extraordinary Feats In A Surprisingly Accurate Manner. They Do

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so for the benefit and survival of the People and of Their Culture. The old Fulani Has KM and the Wisdom of the ages. He Is The guardian of the family kinship and connoisseur of the clan history. He Is The taking of the Ancient secrets of the village management practices, of the traditional healing practices of the list overall and authority "of the laawol Fulbe (Fulani the way of the Wisdom). Every Story Has a older relative to tell. When THEY tell stories about Their Own Lives and stories are giving further and Preserved for future generations ED Down, It Is Called oral history. In the Fulani society, older relative can Be very helpful in piecing together the family history. Often There Is At Least one person in a family who's very knowledgeable of the family history and genealogy. Inauguration of Čierno Wan Wanve from Mboumba, Senegal The inauguration of Mr. Mamadou Wane Hamat have the Čierno Wan-Wanve who performed in July 2000, in Mboumba, SenegalWest-Africa. The title of Wan-Čierno Wanve Is The very special to the Fulani of Futa Toro in Senegal. Čierno IS teacher, has knowledgeable personality in the Islamic Religious Society of Senegal. The Corresponding in Other Parts of the Muslim word are: malam, modibo, ustaz, etc. ulama. Whereas year Almamy Is a Religious Leader Who has Originally leads at prayer times and allow extension of the term Took A more and Secular Meaning politique. Malthus almani of the Futa Toro and Futa Jalon of giving further Assumed not only the title of defender of the faith's goal of political leaders Aussi. The Wan-Wan gold Wanve clan as well as "Other notable families in Futa Toro could" Provide Both titles of Čierno and Almamy.. The selection of the Wan-Čierno Wanve Is Done by a select group of wise men from the village of Mboumba. The Selection Criteria are based on a number of Factors Including Wisdom, Character, Knowledge, Contribution to the Community, Social Rank and Age. This long tradition has been "Honored In The Wan Family and Other families in West - Africa, Including Senegal, Mali, Mauritania and The Gambia. The ceremony, Which last up to Two Weeks who performed in a dignified and formal inmate itted. Before the ceremony, a special individual "From Another Known Whose Family Is To function organizes the opening of the Čierno IS selected. The ceremony IS Witnessed

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by community and by the Whole "responsible authority" figures. The Čierno IS seated on a specially made carpet with two hands Loved it the Quran. Drake dressed in a special gown with head wrapped in a Loved large white turban and heavy Symbolizing Responsibility, Honesty and Justice. The Čierno, personifies all That Is noble, good, and wise in the Fulani People. His functions, HE IS Still dutifully performing are Vast and Varied. All Individuals from the Wan Family, Their s and all the notables and prominent families can call on Him for advice, naming ceremonies and weddings, conflict mediation and special blessings. Will He keep the title of Wan-Čierno Wanve for Life. It Is important to note That There are Also SUCH titles Elsewhere in Futa Toro, for example Čierno Barov. See Picture Notion of Person in the Fulani and Bambara Traditions In the Fulani and Bambara Traditions (the only traditions to make reference Which I Will Because I Know I Believe Them) Two are Used to Designate the person. For the Fulani, and They Are Neddo neddaaku; for the Bambara, They Are Maa and Maaya. The first word means clustering the Person and the second the People of the person. MONSTER, tradition Teaches That There Is INITIALLY Maa, the Person-receptacle either 'Maaya, ie, the various aspects of Maa Maa-Contained in the receptacle. As the Bambara expression says: Maa ka ka ca Maaya has kono Yere. The People of the person are in the multiple person. One Finds desired exactly the concept Sami Among the Fulani. The concept of the person IS Malthus, from the outset, very complex. It Implies year multiplicity interior - gold concentric superimposed plane of existence (Physical, Psychological and spiritual at various levels) - as well as a constant dynamism. Existence, Which Begins with design, IS Preceded by a cosmic pre-existence WHERE IS man reputed to resides in a kingdom of love and harmony Called Benke-so. The birth of a Child Is Regarded as tangible proof That a piece of detached and anonymous existence Was incarnated in order to Accomplish a Mission On Our Earth. The naming ceremony or Baptism DURING Togo golden Which has first name is Given to the newborn Has a special importance. The Togo defines the little individual ". It Locates Him Within the larger community. Three types of birth can take place: an abortion or good-ji, Literally Spilled water, Regarded as unfortunate, a birth That has been "Carried to full term, Called banngi, regarded not only a happy event for the parents, aim for the Village , and the tribe was larger plane for Humanity as a Whole; finally, a birth after nine months more Than, Called menkono, gold nyanguan, Literally, long time belly, prelude to the birth year of extraordinary Being, the nyanguan , the super-sorcerer, Who Comes Into the World Powerful rich with potential. The development of the personal Will take place at the Rhythm Established by the Period of great bodily development, Each Of Which matching to a degree of initiation. The purpose of induction Is To "give the person a moral Psychological and mental power and aids Which conditions and sum the perfect realization of the individual". According To Tradition, the Life of a Normal Man Is Composed of Two great phases: one ascending to sixty-three years of age, comme au descending to

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one Hundred and Twenty-six years of age. Each phase of thesis IS made up of Three broad segments of vingt-one years Comprising Three Periods of seven years. Each segment of vingt-one years defines a degree in initiation, and seven years of EACH period "marks a threshold in the evolution of the human person. Malthus, for instance, in the first seven years of existence, During Which the person-in-training Requires the Utmost care possible, a Child Will Remain Closely connected to Mother Loved it Depends Whom ET for all aspects of life Loved. From seven years to Fourteen years, hey sides around the middle Him am and is Influenced by it, goal ET Every Day Feels the Need to Refer back to Mother Who Loved Loved Remains point of reference. From Fourteen to Twenty-one years of age ET expect the School of life and studies with Masters ITS, and gradually moves away from the influence of Loved mother. The age of Twenty-One marks a very important threshold, Since It Is the Age for ritual circumcision and initiation Into the ceremonies of the gods. "During the second Twenty-One Years of His Life, A Man Will Mature The Teachings That He Received" during the previous period ". THROUGHOUT That Time, HE IS Expected to Be on the lookout for wise men, and if it should "That One Of Them Happen grants him / her a word, It Is a favor gold as a test and not Because ET Has a right to it. At forty-three years of age, On The Other Hand, HE IS Supposed to Have Reached maturity, for all intents and Purposes, and to figure Among the Masters. Having the right to speak, ET uses it to teach others That Which Has Learned ET and matured "during the first Period of Two Loved life. Finally, at sixty-three years of age, the great ascending phase ends. Regarded as drake HAVING Completed Loved active life and is No longer constrained by "any obligation to continue to teach. He Is Not prevented from doing so howeve, if then this is gold Loved Loved calling capability ... The Entire Body Has A symbolism WHICH IS has quite precise. The head, for example, represents the level of the Highest Being, pierced by seven wide opening. Each of contention Is The port of entry to a state of Being gold world, am and is Guarded by a divinity. Each entrance Provides access to a new interior door, and so on to infinity. The opposite IS regarded the primary facade of the deeper habitat of the people of Maa, and exterior signs (gestures, expressions) allowed one to decipher the persons selected from a lot of contention. Show me your face, and I will tell you the Manner of Being interior of your people, says the proverb. Each matching interior to Being a world rotates around Which year central axis or point ... .... The concept of the unity of life goes hand in hand with the "fundamental concepts of balance, exchange, and Interdependence. Maa, Who contains in Himself all year element of Existing Things, IS Called to Become Guarantors of the equilibrium of the exterior world, & Events Of The Cosmos. To the Extent That He Loved returns to true nature (That of primary Maa), man APPEAR in the world, as the axis Whose It Is intended to keep the external multiplicity from falling Into Chaos ... .... To Conclude, I draw attention to the fact That tradition IS Concerned with the human person as multiplicity year interior, unfinished at The Beginning, Called to order and Unify Himself For The Purpose of Finding Loved Right Place

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Within unities more Vast Than the human community and the Whole "cosmos. Synthesis of the universe and the forces of Crossroads of Life, Man Is Therefor Called to Become The equilibrium point Where It Will Be possible to combine, Him-through, the various dimensions of Which Is The bearer ET. Then ET Will Truly Deserve the Name of Maa, Maa-Ngala interlocutor of Guarantors and of the balance of creation. By Hampate Ba ENDNOTES For a more Detailed discussion of the creation myth, see Bâ Hampate. 1981. The Living Tradition, General History of Africa, Vol. 1, Methodology and African Prehistory, J. Ki-Zerbo, ed. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press and Unesco): 168-170.

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Village Life

As opposed to the true Nomads, They Once Were, Constantly on the Move With Their large herds of cattle, a larger number of Fulani are increasingly Settled Leading a lifestyle. Theys May Send Their transhumance with cattle in Specialized livestock herders Who take Between Mountains and lowland pastures in search of green pasture FOLLOWING exchange in climate and vegetation. By and large, Settled Fulani are pastoralists Becoming Who tends to Their farms haveas well as animals SUCH keep cattle, sheep and goats. The Fulani majorité of today live in villages with the traditional mud-walled huts or straw Replaced by brick and cement houses with corrugated metal roofs. Often houses are walled compounds Located in WHERE and one man has more wives or live with Their Children and Other extended family of An For example, the Fulbe Futa are patriarchal, order the mother has some exertion Amount of Power in the day to day running of the house "during the frequent absences Especially of the father. The husband / father Is The one to make all the important decisions and representing The family. The decisions of the father can be discussed, the father goal Is Always To Be RespectEd and Never to Be Proven Wrong or embarrassed in front of wives or Loved Children. The father / husband IS regarded the provider of food, clothes, shelter, and medicine, intended Often the wives are the ones Who get involved in various money making adventures to make ends meet.

Socializing in the Village

Village Life Is Tied Together Through cooperation and socializing. The survival of the village depends on the villagers sharing and Helping Each Other. Everyone is related in Some Way, so the Whole "village is Like a big family. People help Each Other With Their work and when to not working They Are, They Spend Most Of Their Time socializing and joking and talking-telling. Neighbors share meals by Bring Their meals together in What is similar to a pot-luck.

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THEY take turn in doing so What is Called tumbudu. Neighbors help Also Look after Each Other 'children. Children Often Spend the night in Their House of Their Friends Children Behave Badly gold relatives.If Outside the home, "any adult can discipline Them and Will carry the misbehavior to the parents. Children and young adults form age group of Sami Called Fedde. Furthermore, HAVING gone-through circumcision and Other initiation rites of the same people are tied together by Fedde bonds of friendship and Solidarity THROUGHOUT Their Lives. Celebration The villagers gather together to Celebrate holidays, to Celebrate Weddings and births, deaths to mourn, to bid farewell to travelers to greet 'em and Their upon return. The Whole Village participate way in contention events. In large gatherings, men and women tends to Socializer separately. A wedding celebration in the Village can last anywhere from 3 to 7 days. Everyone in Preparing the food and decorating the bride's and groom's houses. For more information click on Ceremonies. Village Housing

Fulani villages are Several types of Ranging Some hamlets to big towns. While the hamlets Have huts, tents ou autres simple structures, the big village can exhibit graceful style of the housing. The thick walls Have houses made of mud mixed with straw and cow dung. The thick walls keep the house cool in the summer and warm in the winter. Each House is Surrounded by high mud walls That was fenced off courtyard. Enters One-through a tall, majestic gateway WHICH IS Usually decorated with colorful designs and symbols. The spacious courtyard Has year earth floor. Children play There and adults sit on elevated wooden decks, Called danke, gold THEY sit on the ground is colorful mats Called daago, while THEY relax and Socialization. During, hot summer nights, the family sleeps CF firefighters "under the stars in the fresh air of the courtyard. A typical house includes a living room for guests, bedrooms, a storage room, and a large kitchen. The outdoor courtyard Also includes year for summer living room, kitchen and baking year outdoor area, and in a shady spot, the big clay jars for cooling drinking water. A house includes a big kitchen with plenty of room for a lot of women together to cook and visit. For social occasions, women gather in the kitchen and the courtyard to help in the preparation of food for large numbers of guests, male and female

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While women work in the kitchen Preparing food for guests, a few "women tended the children in a room nearby. This room opens onto the courtyard, so It Has Plenty of light and fresh air. Arts and crafts During, down times, When the bulk of the farm work and herding Is Done Is Not a major concern, Generally village artisans at work Their arts and crafts. Theys Produce: Sneakers, Leather goods, handmade pots, and blankets woven from sheep's Tunics wool. Artisan work Is Done To The cast system LUKAS am and is Often based on gender. For example do Maabubhe cloth weaving, wood carving and lawbhe waylubhe jewelry and metal work. There Are Also The local tailor can sew beautiful Who handball gold machine embroidery, the traditional healer, the teacher and the merchants. Food

Much of the Food That people eat in the Village Comes from Their farms or nearby villages. Theys grow sorghum, millet, maize and rice, "as well as vegetables, beans, fruits, and dates. Most families raise chickens, ducks, goats, sheep, and cattle for meat. In addition, chickens and ducks Provide eggs, while goats and cows milk for drinking and Provide for making butter and yoghurt. The villagers buy sugar, coffee, spices, cooking oil, and rice from small shops in the village or nearby markets. In the kitchen, girls and older women cook Other foods. Any event or social gathering in the Village includes a feast, so part of the event for the women includes gathering to help with the cooking while THEY Socialize. Meals Consist of whole grain millet gniri made from sorghum with sauces made from vegetables and lamb, beef, chicken or fish. The women arranged the food on trays Which are Carried out to the guests. People love to share Their cooking, so you see Before meals Children Carrying Their Mothers from food to Other families, Especially to old or sick Neighbors. Theys Also carry food out to the farms, people working in the WHERE Stop Their Work fields to gather and eat. Until a few years ago, charcoal, wood and cow dung Were the only fuels for cooking. Now the villagers Have access to bottled gas and the women enjoy using gas stoves for the sacrifice part of cooking. Cattle Traditionally the Fulani are MOST important Amongst the group of cattle herders in West Africa. Because Of Their Migratory Movements With Their herds, the Fulani are Scattered across Presently West Africa, From Senegal to

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Ethiopia. In Many areas ", They mix farming with herding. This is true for Many of the Fulani in Senegal, Mauritania , Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger who. Who Farm "during the rainy season, goal depends upon Who Primarily for Their cattle Their subsistence. There Are Three Ways in Which a family can Be ed by Their animals. First, the milk from the TOWS Is a staple food am and is Consumed in large quantities. Secondly, the Milk Consumed IS WHICH IS not traded for a measure of millet Sometimes gold for cash. This activity of the women IS cippal Known As (to trade or sell milk). THEY walk to the town in the mornings curateur in order to trade Either soured milk (Kossam kaadham) or fresh butter (nebbam keccam) or a form of heated butter WHICH IS nebbam sirrnëj like oil. Normally THEY do not sell fresh milk bhiradham What They earn in this way Often Provider Major portion of the revenu familial. In fact, They May Be Able to supplement the grain Needs of Their family for a "substantial part of the Year in this way. Finally, a family Will sell year animal (preferably a sheep or goat Before a cow) When THEY must make a large purchase. For example, They Will Probably Need to buy a few "sacks of grain (millet and rice)" during the year Since They Do not cultivate a Sufficient Amount "during the rainy season. The money to buy grain, cloth, sugar, tea, etc.. Usually Comes from a year selling animals. Rarely are Animals Killed for Meat. Traditionally year animal Killed Was Only ritual occasions we have SUCH a wedding or naming ceremony, or in order to welcome a guest. Because of this, people eat meat very Rarely. Crop Cultivation It Is a form of agriculture in Which crops are Produced only Enough to Meet the Requirements of the family. In good years, There 'may be a surplus to sell and put aside for hard times. Subsistence farmers "Primarily Rarely use fertilizers and the sizes of Their farms are very small. The Whole System is farming based on human and Labor draft animals. The key implements are the hoe, Jalo, the ax, jambere, and the Matchette jasi. Type of crops grown depends upon the climate and environment. Whereas people in the forest belt grow root crops like yams and cassava, plantains, palm oil; Their Counterparts in the savanna grow millet, sorghum, maize, cassava cassava, peanuts, beans, sweet potatoes. Today, a large proportion of Fulani life revolve around the river or water points. The rivers Provide water for drinking, cooking, and washing "as well as for irrigation. The rivers' flood yearly Provides Fertile silt for agriculture. The Fulani cattle herders are Traditionally Turning Into more and more farmers ", Who work the land with the help of Their Families. Everyone, Including the Children, Has a Job to Do, Especially in times of heavy work like planting or harvest. Animals like cows, donkeys, camels and work Along with the People, Preparing the land, plowing, and harvesting the crops. Theys Also carry people and Their crops Between the village and the fields. In the Midst of the Sahel, the rivers' yearly flooding not only Brings Abundant water, drank Also Renew the soil by depositing banks ITS Along a rich load of silt from upstream. In the fields flooded by the rivers, the villagers plant crops like quick-Growing beans, sorghum, and vegetables. Fishing

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Fishing, wandade, IS Among common dwellers and giving further coastal living around rivers, lakes and creeks. In the Senegal river, The cast engaged in fishing Is The Subalbhe. The cast Methods Used dug-out canoes include, net, hooks, spears etc.. Modern Technology Has Brought the outboard motor, order the Use of large trawlers not common. The Market Place The market plays a very important role in the Life of the Fulani men and women. They Will take and Their Donkey carts, taxis or walk the bush Several kilometers to the various weekly markets. Many Fulani women sell milk products Their, straw mats, calabash bowls, homemade soaps and Other assorted marchandises. Theys Meet with the women from villages comme au and catch up on the latest births, deaths, marriages and Other Important News. Others come to, like the women, catch up on the latest news from around the Greater area. The men Congregate Around the comité Called the Daraal. The site location is Daraal IS Usually the Outskirts of the larger towns. Many come to buy or sell There cattle, goats or sheep. That est aussi WHERE ITS gets the meat market supply. Markets in between men women gold May occasionally visit One Another In Their Homes. Schooling When They Are Seven years old, children go to public school. Generally, There Is only one elementary school in the Village. For middle and secondary school, students Have to go to boarding school in a nearby town and only come home one weekend and holidays. In the past, children to Islamic schools Derwent Mostly, parents and schools with suspected viewed: Western. Howeve Nowadays, everyone is happy in school has a new serie Their village. Parents take the Education of Their Children gravement, and When They Are Proud Their children do well in school. Students respect the teachers very much. When the teacher Enter the classroom, the children stand politely with Their Hands Behind Their backs. Also Theys Stand When They Ask golden answer questions. For the MOST part, children walk to and from school Every Day. There are No day-care centers in the Village. While the parents are working, children are cared for by sisters and brothers Their, Their grandparents, ou autres on. Children learn Many Things Outside of school. Theys learn from watching older people As They Work. Also learn from Theys Helping Their parents work in the gold fields in the house. All the adults in the Village participate way in Teaching young people how to Behave and how to Cooperate in the Life and Work of the village community. Religion As Highlighted by A Mazrui, in the popular TV series Africans, Most people in West Africa Have a triple Religious heritage. People are Muslims, Christians, and believe in Some African traditional religions. The Fulani people in villages are Muslims. Their Religion is Called Islam and Their holy book Is The Quran. THEY believe in one God, Allah in the Arabic language, and That Was Muhammad the Last Messenger from God. Muslims pray five times a day. On Friday at noon, The villagers go to the

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mosque to pray together. After THEY pray, celebrities and friends on Their visit and eat together. Religion is the core of life in the Village. It's everywhere. It's life itself. Once a year, "during the month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from dawn to dusk. They Do not eat or drink Anything "during the daytime for the Whole" month. During, Ramadan, the days are very quiet in the Village. At sunset, people gather to eat Outside Their houses and share food with Their Neighbors and ers-by. At the end of Ramadan, There Is a special four-day holiday, Eid alFitr Called. Everyone dresses up in new clothes, Visit their relative Exchanges gifts, and shares in special holiday meals. Theys Also go to the graveyard to visit the grave of Their Ancestors and on. Once in a Lifetime, Every Muslim IS Supposed to make the Hajj pilgrimage gold, to Mecca, The Holy Place of the Muslims. For a community member RespectEd, It Is a dream come true to make this trip to Mecca. The Whole village gathers to say farewell to People Who we leave the pilgrimage. At pilgrimage time, There Is a four-day holiday, Eid al-Adha Called. Every family sacrifice a sheep and shares the meat with others. The importance of Islam in the IS villages underscored by The Tremendous role Played by Religious Teachers and cleric. Theys KM impart to the youth, the divine and interpret the daily Laws. Even THEY get involved in the mental and physical healing. Traditional Medicine The medicine in the Village IS made from plants and minerals found in the area. Roots, seeds, leaves, and flowers are Used to prepare remedies for Ailments and Illnesses. The Fulani Have Tested and Developed thesis remedies over Thousands of years. A large percent of villagers use traditional medicines Still That Which They Know and Trust. Learned Religious persons, sernabhe (singular Čierno) Also Provide health related advices. Relatively Recently, health center, with modern drugs, Have Been Built in larger villagers. Hospital Also can Be found in the regional capital. Spice shop in town markets sell traditional medicines as well as herbs and spices. Transportation Transportation Within The Village and Its surroundings Remains In Some Ways the way it has-beens for Thousands of years. Often people walk, ride horses, donkeys, bulls, camels gold. Donkeys, camels and Bulls carry heavy loads from place to place. A simple wooden sailboat or dug-out canoe IS Carrying Used for people, animals and marchandises Across the rivers Where They exist. Villagers ride donkeys to travel short distances in and around the village. More modern transportation moyen de Aussi are used. These include simple donkey and horse carts, "as well as small pickup trucks. There are no regular buses, Because of the few "Paved roads are. People travel to nearby marketplaces to gold in the regional capital of contention pickups gold in nozzles.

Village customs Traditions

Overview

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Greetings

Greetings in Pulaar are Formed from a series of questions from What we call the greeting sequence. The questions' may be about family, health, work, the weather, etc.., And Will vary Slightly DEPENDING upon the time of day. The usual greetings are: no Mbadha? Jam Wone e ma? Meaning how are you? Are you in peace? The questions from the greeting sequence require "Always one of the standard replies: Jam tan, Jam solo gold Ko mawdhum. Greetings are Highly ritualized, and at this point in the conversation no one Expects to Hear the truth about you health, Family Problems, or whatever. All encounters with everybody should "Always begin with a greeting Meaning appropriée Several questions from the sequence and a handshake. It Is Normally the person arrived Who Who should "begin the greeting. In fact, greetings "could have viewed: Be the Pulaar au français equivalent expressions have SUCH Excuse me or sorry the interruption. In Other Words, greetings are the mark of Politeness Themselves. Foreigners Who are customarily fail to greet've viewed: Being very impolite. Greetings Normally take the form of one person Asking Several questions. When ET breaks, comme au person Asks in His turn. Then There 'may be a slight pause and the Whole "Thing Will begin again. The length of the greeting depends upon how well Will two people know Each Other, how long it has been "Since THEY Have Seen Each Other, and upon the respective age and status of the persons Involved. Finally, you should "sacrifice part of the record body language, gestures, and tone of voice Which go with greetings. When you are meeting a stranger or someone older Than Yourself, It Would Be regarded impolite to look him or her in the face Directly. Instead, greetings are mumbled Quickly and Often in a low tone of voice, with The Two participants looking at the ground. To Westerners this attitude Seems to signal disinterest in What One Is Doing. Purpose in this case it means clustering Actually the opposite That You Are Showing respect for the person you are greeting.

Respect As in Many languages have SUCH French, older people, authority figures, and strangers are Referred to in the plural. Also in this Pular fixe When Referring to someone in the Third Person; When Referring to your father, for instance, would you say Respectfully: theyare sleeping Rather Than HE IS sleeping.That 's the easy part. Things To complicata Furth, There Is aspecial vocabulary of

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respect, verbs like to come to sleep gold gold gold head nouns like handball Have Completely different forms When Applied to someone of status. Body Language Shaking hands with Both Hands, and holding your forearm or elbow, are signs of deference. SO IS looking to the ground or away from the person you are greeting. Looking someone straight in the eye, can have construed Be Aggressiveness On Being Polite You Will Find the concept of Being polite IS something quite different from what you with are accustomed to. For example, There is No real equivalent for the Pulaar Français expression thank you. A jaaraama can Be Used as thank you, drank It Is Used Much More Than the sparingly Français expression. In your day to day s with people It Is not Necessary to Automatically Simply use expressions have SUCH excuse me, please, excuse me, thanks, I'm sorry to bother you but ..., etc.. The nearest equivalent to Pulaar thesis expressions tends to Be reserved for a more serious and important context. They Are Not Used Every Time Another person one interrupts. In fact, the concept of interrupting the Whole "Is a Westerner in Which concept we express the cultural value That Time is money, and we try in Which daily to minimize human to a business report. We must show comme au That person we know we are interrupting Him, Even bothering Him with words of deference and Politeness. That is our way of Being polite formulaic. On the Other Hand, It Is Perfectly in Pulaar Simply polite to state a request. People expect all sorts of human interactions "during the day. There are, however, some very significant signs of compliance and Politeness Which tends not to Recognize Westerners at first. Most important is handler, oz again, the greetings. Correctly greeting people Is One Of The MOST important signs of respect That you can show 'em. You should "never ask anybody for something Without greeting em first. In order to Develop the complex web of Social Relationships Which Will make your stay in "any village or town enjoyable, you should" get in the habit of greeting not only the people you run to Happen on the Street Into Gold in business, purpose of Deliberately Also going to visit someone you have not seen for a while for no purpose Other Than to greet 'em. ing by someone's house for only five minutes Even Will please em enormously.

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Secondly, It Is not impolite to interrupt others regarded by greeting Them When You come, Even If They Are Themselves Between talking. In fact, to enter a room and fail to greet everybody (Including shaking hands) would have seen Be tough. Also, always ACKNOWLEDGE the presence or arrival of someone else. You should "Simply not walk past people, Even If You Have Them Already greeted earlier. When someone else regulation comes into your presence You Can Always Say A? Articles. When you arrive, You Can Always Say Mi? Artii (I Have Returned).

Honoring Someone

Teddingol Teddungal gold is literally to make heavy and means clustering to take gravement, to respect, or to honor. Teddungal Is The Corresponding noun, Gold compliance Meaning honor. A useful phrase to indicate where and That IS a gift, made in the spirit of friendship and respect, and not as a payment or business transaction, IS Ko teddungal mo? It. Out of respect to you. You Can Always Give Thanks by Saying it jaraama Albarka gold.

Although this sequence of Particular Saying good-bye May Saying Good- sound strange to you right now, you Will Find yourself bye repeating words exact thesis Many Times. When you announce your intention to leave (by Yehiya Gold Saying Mi Mi hootii, People Will Normally protest, insisting That You stay longer. It Is a sign of Politeness to ask a guest to stay longer to wait for the next meal, to OR Events Spend the night if HE IS away from home. When this Happens You Can Simply repeat your intention to leave. As you leave, you have someone Will Accompany short distance. This sign of respect and pleasure at the visit Which IS something you should "Also show to your guests. Never Say Goodbye Simply inside of the house and let your guests depart alone. Walk em at least you as far as the front gate, and offer to carry "any packages. When You Have gone as far as you "intend to go You May Say: Mid haadhii dho I? M Stopping here. At this point, Will Be felt greetings to the others and blessings Withdrawals. Waynade IS Saying good-bye or farewell for longer trips. Significance of Kodho Comes From The Word Meaning to resident hotde Kodho, Guest gold to Inhabit. When someone with horns to a family resides where, he / she IS Their kodho. The Concept of kodho Is One Which Does not Have An exact translation

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Into Français. It Is a concept rooted in the WHICH IS WHERE Culture Is Not emphasized individuality. In this culture, everyone Is a member of a family, a clan, a village. Imagine a stranger who's traveling. He arrived at a village for the first time. It Is late in the day, and ET Wishes to Spend the night before traveling Furth. The first thing should "do ET Which Is To the head of the village, Known as the ARDHO Farba joomwuro gold. Since There Are No hotels, It Is The Farber Who will tell Him Where He can Spend the Night. He Also Will Instruct someone to prepare food for the kodho. In this sense, can mean kodho Both stranger and guest. In Spite of this fact, ET Has Entered Into a Relationship Somehow with the village. He Simply Can not pay money for services and intransitive independent and anonymous. Furthermore, if a family migrates Into a new area looking for new pasture for cattle Their land to farm gold, It Is the ARDHO, arba gold Joom Wuro Who Gives Him permission to stay, permission to draw water from the well, to build a house was piece of land, to farm a certain plot. A stranger arrives and Simply Can not start using the resources of the village. He Must Be the kodho of someone who's Already in the Village we Westerners tend to think in of Arriving in a "town and renting a place to stay, have individuality. Although this can Happen in larger towns today, This Was Traditionally unimaginable. And It Still Can not Happen in a smaller town. Furthermore, It Is not really the preferable way to Proceed. A newcomer should "Always Be the kodho of someone in the Village Who Then Becomes Loved njaatige host. THROUGHOUT Loved stay ET Will Be Known As so and so? S guest. When people ask you Who are you implying What is your relationship to the village to explain Them That You Are The kodho of SUCH and SUCH a njaatigi. You Have a Role thereby place with gold THE ENTIRE village. You are no longer individual "year, by order of the Social unit linked to the rest of the community. This is a very important concept Since no one can imagine year existence alone in a village setting. Village Life is communal, and Being by someone? S khodho you enter Into That community Taboos

In the Fulani culture There Are Numerous taboos. Taboos Regarding When to wash clothes, When to get a hair cut, getting up in the morning from the left foot, etc.. Taboos related posture and body languages are The Foremost Also numerous.One of taboos has married woman says "should never speak the name of Her husband, Her inlaws or her first born child. Even If There Is Another

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person by the name Sami, She is forbidden to call Them by Their name. Another taboo In Some Fulani groups IS Against eating goat's meat. The Fear Is That if someone eats goat's meat he or she Will Become a leper. Yet another taboo IS an Infant Against drinking goat's milk. It Is Believed Will the child itch if he or she drinks the milk.

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The Habitat Here too, One can not speak of homogenous habitat. Fulani are Often Identified by Their rental. For example, one can find in Senegal Fulani Jeeri, In the desert as opposed to Fulani Waalo Who Live Along the Senegal River and in Nigeria, the Fulani Jos, Jos Plateau from the IS Differentiated from the Fulani Katsina, Katsina from the province. Their housing and living conditions depends on influences from the immediate environment and Surrounding crops. For the Fully nomadic Fulani is the practice transhumance, the seasonal movement in search of water, Strongly influenced settlement patterns. The basic settlement Consisting Of A Family and Their Dependence IS Called Wuuro. Those Who Remain nomadic Fulani gold semi-nomadic Have Two major types of Settlement: dry season, October to May, and wet season June to September. Howeve, a large number of semi-gold Settled Settled Fulani live in rural settings. Due to tradition and Their reserved nature tend THEY new serie Which Communities are spread out. Each Village May Have a population of as Many as 100 or more, or order the homes are huts in Scattered groups of Two Three gold. In the Typical family compound THEY Have a grass hut with room for as Many as Three beds inside. These beds are Raised off the ground, with a firm foundation wooden Covered by a millet stalk mat. Ltr very hard, do get one goal off the ground away from the sacrifice part of bugs. Nowadays, the traditional homes built with mud walled hut are Replaced by brick and cement houses with corrugated metal roofs. Often houses are walled compounds Located in WHERE and one man has more wives or live with Their Children and Other of An extended family. Outside a fire or fire place IS WHERE IS made centrally located Between the huts as the women tended to work together. A very large pestle and mortar for the Are Always nearby pounding of the grain gold sauce ingredients. A matte gold Possibly found a small stool IS Outside the hut for just sitting. Some Have Reasons to be a straw shade shelter

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Food Dinner's Almost Ready The Fulani are sacrifice part of the MOST hospitable people you'll ever meet, and it's hard to go anywhere Without Being Fed. Hour Before Dinnertime, you're bad at having to Be Told to stay and eat (it's Almost ready). Feel free to accept or turn down invitations argument as you see him, drank Always Find Some polite ways to decline. Meal Time Meals are Normally Served in one large bowl. At meal time everyone gathers around the bowl. Before and after meal was a bowl of water for washing Will Be Provided your hands. Always eat with your right hand only! The host or hostess Normally Will Say bismillah in the Name of God as a signal to begin eating. Usually Conversation Is Kept to a minimum while eating. You should "eat only from the square in front of you Directly. If you want a piece of vegetable or meat from the center of the bowl, break off a small piece and put it in the square in front of you. When You Have finished you should "move away from the bowl, Rather Than Waiting Until everyone is finished. People That You Will Always protest "should" eat more, in Which box Mi haarii Is The appropriate "reply. Something to drink only after Provided IS the meal. In a large village compound and the men women eat separately. The Children May Also Be Given A Separate Bowl, DEPENDING upon how many years people live in the compound. As a guest Often You May Be Given A Separate bowl to eat from in a room by yourself, as a sign of respect. People are, however, if you want Often Pleased to eat with 'em. (Although You Should not INSIST on this if you are only a guest for a day or two. In That Box, let 'em decide upon the arrangements.) Male guests "should only eat with the men not given if They Are A Separate bowl. Female guests eat with the women alone gold. When the food is Served, everyone Will Automatically invites you to eat with 'em at Their bowl. I'm his box, Simply say Mi haarii Proper and wait for the group to eat with gold for your Own bowl. If you enter a compound at meal time you Will Always Be Invited To stay and eat. In turn, you should "Always invite people to you if THEY find you eating. People Never Consider How Much There Is food to feed over how many people. They Are Concerned only to share with What They Have everyone present. If you do not want to eat, say Mi haarii. If people are stressed, eat only one or Two handfull of Food and Then say Mi haarii. It is more polite to taste a little bit to Than refuses to share in a meal Entirely. Sharing a meal In Rural Areas "as well as in the Cities, meals are Eaten together in one large bowl. In a small family, everyone eats together in a large dish. Howeve, for large family holidays gold DURING There Are Separate dishes for men, women

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and children. Before eating people inside thoroughly wash Their hands. Here, There Are No lengthy Prayers Before eating, a simple Bissimilay Would Be Enough. People eat in front of 'em and are considerate of the others. After the meal people washed Their hands and "give thanks: Attaya. In this society It Is not impolite to burp Witch Is The sign somebody That Has Eaten well. The family share cola nuts May gold tea Attaya Afterwards. Cakra IS Often Served as dessert. Drinks Muslims areas in contention There Are No Elaborate drinks. Meal "during the time the only available drink water IS. Served in golden calabash gourd. In addition to the proverbial tea daily, and the morning coffee, sauf drinks are Offered Tuffam Has Watered down milk sour Served With or Without sugar, ginger , A ginger drink and Roselle follere, A drink made from hibiscus flower year. In the larger towns, soft drinks, and Other Modern Beverages are Served Also at special occasions. Tea ceremony Drinking Tea Is an important social function. A great deal of ceremony surrounds the making and serving of tea. Every day, families or tea-drinking groups to take part in Meet the ceremony of The Three teas. It could "Be done" any time a day, drank usual in the Afternoon. As The Saying Goes: The first cup IS strong like life; the second is sweet like love, And The Third is sweet with mint. The ceremony Is very formal, and serving tea is important way of welcoming year someone: if strangers visit, They Will Always Be Offered tea and dates. Making tea Empty a bag of tea leaves Into the teapot, and add appropriate "Amount of Water. Bring it to boil in a special tea pot. Then put fresh mint and sugar in the tea pot Directly Into a second gold teapot for a Better Mix. To serve, hold the pot to high and it Into a series of small glasses. Holding the pot high foam And Also Creates cool the tea so That It Can Be Quickly drinkable. People take time over the tea, chatting around the teapot on the stove. Both young and old enjoy drinking tea. The Cola Nut, Goro After a copious meal, holidays and ceremonies DURING Especially, a cola nut IS Used to complete the meal. The kola nut is broken Into small pieces and shared Between family and friends. The kola nut Has A Very Special Meaning in West African cultures. It Is Used to seal agreements and contracts. For example, It Is Widely Distributed at weddings, naming ceremonies, and conflict mediation. The kola nut symbolization understanding, friendship and unity. (See Pictures

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Ceremonies Age & Birthdays Traditionally, the Fulani do not make a big deal out of birthdate, and It Is not unusual for someone Not to Be When They Were sour desired exactly how old or born They Are. Bringing gold Sending Gifts The concept of Addenda Hunde Golden Neldal Bringing gifts extends to coming back When gold from a trip abroad while Sending a gift. It Is Not a bad idea to pick up a few "inexpensive gifts or trinkets for your friends and family while you are away in the big city gold Some foreign land. It Is like sharing your experience and ing the person. When you come back from somewhere, You Will Often beasked won ko ngaddan dha me? Did you bring me Anything? Do not take this too gravement, and do not worry That You Should Have Brought 'em something. KB weltaare ngaddumi. Brought happiness.You I can just make something up Also if You Did not Bring Anything. Gifts and hospitality village Gifts are important year of hospitality part on Both ends: the guest with gifts May Bring 'em to present on arrival (neldugol; the gift IS neldaare nden), And the host May offer the visitor a departing gift to take home with them (fandugol; the gift IS fandaare nden) If you are going from a town to a village, take That Are not readily available items: bread, tea, sugar, cola nuts, and candy. Canned sardines and Other Things are well received; N IS cash. In return You May Be Given peanuts, fonio, rice, gold Even a chicken gold goat If They really like you. Gifts at ceremonies You should "bring a gift to naming ceremonies, weddings, funerals, etc.. Usually cash is your best bet: it's easy to carry, it's Always welcome, and you do not Have to worry about Unintended symbolism. Naming Ceremony Living in a village or town, Often You Will Participate In The kinds of family events are regularly Which "celebrated by everyone. Naming ceremonies are one of the major family events for families and Which Neighbors get together. Naming ceremonies follow Muslim practice, and take place seven days after the birth of a child. The day of the ceremony naming the imam from the mosque horns early in the morning. Heb listings the Name of the child for the first time. A sheep IS Killed Usually, preparations and get Underway to cook for all of the People Who Will Spend the day at the compound. If you are Attending a ceremony naming, you should "plan to arrive in the morning. You Will Be

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Served Usually a bowl of millet and milk first. Later, There Will Be Budhi (Millet patties) or fritters (WHERE French influence exists), and grilled meat, lunch, and ataaya (Tea). Although People Will by all day long, the family MOST Receive the guests in the morning and over the lunch hour. You should "bring a gift of money for the parents. The Child Is Always named after someone. Then this person Becomes the child's tokora, gold namesake. The bonds are special tokora Has the day of the naming ceremony. Beside Contributing to the share of the Day for dépenses, the tokora Will Also distribute money and cola as a Way of Celebrating the honor. Holidays The Most Important of the Year are holidays Religious holidays. Of the furnace discussed here Koorka Korite gold "during the Islamic month of Ramadan and gold Taaska Tabaski" during the month of. Tabaski and Korite Are The MOST important. Koorka From The verb Hoora, To fast Is The month of fasting prescribed by Islam. The month ends with a day of celebration. Called Juulde Koorka. Haaraan, or the New Year, not only Is The Religious holiday we discuss. Maawluudu commemorates the birth of the Prophet Mohammad. Taaska Is The Day of Atonement Muslims Which Reminds Of The Covenant Between God and Abraham. Generally meals "during the holidays are: Caakri, Grilled meat Michou SALTE bassi. Caakri IS millet flour cooked with milk. Bassi Salte IS millet couscous with meat sauce and vegetables. Click here for Recipes. The Habbanaya The cows are treasured Certainly the MOST of the animals the Fulani herd. The cows are so special, Many People Can not Say That a person speak Fulfulde If He Does not Own a cow. The Fulani tradition of giving to Have a habbanaya That Is a cow WHICH IS loaned to Another Until She calves. Once the calf weaned IS It Is Retained and the cow IS ITS Returned to owner. This habbanaya Is a Highly prized animal. Upon receipt of this gift, There Is a special ceremony in Honor of the gift. The recipient buys and special treats for guests Neighbors Loved this event in Which the habbanaya IS Given a name. The habbanaya Is Never To Be Struck Under Any Circumstance. Gerewol Has the Cure Salé The Cure Sale Is One Of The brightest and biggest celebrations in West Africa. It underinsured motorist Just Before the rains come, and Is a of socializing and catching up, as herders Meet Around the rich salt deposits Located Between In Gall and Tegguiddan Tessoumin. year in area west of Agadez in Niger. Theys rest and wait for the blessed rain. One of the highlights of the Cure Salé Is The famous men's beauty pagean the Gerewol, a festival by the nomadic Fulani Held Wodaabe. This Much Anticipated gathering Takes place at the end of the rain season, around September / October. Gerewol IS first and Foremost a marriage

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market. The men make up Their Lips, Eyebrows, Cheeks and with natural cosmetics. Theys fantastic wear jewelry in the form of feathers, pearls, amulets. Young men dress in ostrich-feather capes, leather belts trimmed with Cowry shells, ceremonial axes. The gerewol Is a contest, a Dance of Youth Before elders. A delegation of girls, Picked by the elders, tly decided EACH year on the MOST beautiful man. Young men dance together, arm in arm, in a line, to lavish the attention of girls with comic expressions and songs. Theys a slow dance, stamping rhythm in song while praising the charms of the young women. These young women are graded in order of beauty. No drum-ming the dance accompaniment. Meanwhile the young women dance nearby, by Way of Choosing Also song the MOST handsome and best-dressed youth. The best gold oven Three young men and women are paired off I'm his order, while the rest got off together They Will. Each pair IS Expected to Spend the evening together. Although a reconnu form of courtship, the dance gerewol Does not Necessarily Lead to marriage. Since different lineages Bororo Celebrate Their Gerewol At The Same Time, Several Gerewol Occur over a six-week period ". Sharo The ceremony Sharo Demonstrates The Greater community to a Young Man That Has Come of age. In it, young boys take turns hitting One Another With Their walking sticks across the chest. No outward show of pain can Be shown. It Is common for the boy to shout Being hit gold laugh after HE IS stricken. Although adolescents Have Died in this ceremony, young men are Eager to Participate and display Their scars with pride. In Some boxes Fulani man has regarded Is Not a true Fulani UNLESS ET Has Participated in this show of strength. In Niger the ceremony IS Against the Law aim Will Young men gather at a local market and Have the ceremony away from the eyes of the Local Authorities. The naming ceremony unlikable, no special activity associated with this opportunity IS. It Is Meant to mark the end of puberty and the introduction of the Initiate Into Young Adulthood and the added responsibility "of looking after the herd.These traditions are Meant to Ensure That the functions of the family and lineage are Fulfilled and Its norms of conduct have bewitched and perpetuated gains. Few of contention practices are now Observed by the Town Fulani, Representing What May Be Described As A Cultural Difference between the nomadic and Settled Fulani. Festivals There are Many local festivals That dates back to the Time Before the arrival of the major religions, and Which are Still occasions for masquerade and dance. The local festivals cover year Enormous range of events, from harvest festivals and festivals Betrothal, to the chief of a New Investing and dances funerals.The oz That Were Performed by of Each village now Have Been Taken Over by professional troops, Who round villages EACH performing at local Muslim festival.The year revolver Around the Three Major festivals, Id Al Fitr, Id al-Kabir and Id al Maulud.

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Fifire In the Futa Toro Fishermen Participate in the Fifire Which highlight the alligator hunting season. Fishermen decorate Their canoe and Their spear in vivid colors. At the beat of the calabash in the water the crocodile are attracted by the sound of the beat. Their emergence from the water signals the Beginning of the fifire. All the events are punctuated with the songs of Pekan and Gunshot. Daydare Daydare IS similar to fifire Without the crocodile hunting. The colorfullydressed groups of fishermen, decorate and race canoes Their Along the river Accompanied by songs and drumming. Guri Baali Guri Baali IS Performed When All the Fulani shepherds get together to show how well groomed THEY Have Their flock. Theys ran Followed by the animals, jumping over bushes and Other Many obstacles and Performance acrobatic moves. Circumcision When A Child Reach The Age Between 8 and 15, ET goes trough the special ritual of circumcision. In the Fulani society, the traditional ritual of circumcision That Is a big event required the participation of all the segments of the society, social class EACH, and EACH member of the family role LUKAS Specifying Has A Relationship With The Loved to candidate to the circumcision . See Initiation Marriage The process of getting married can Be Divided Into Several steps. The initial step Called the IS djamal, the commitment. At this stage the man's family Approaches the family of the woman to have the Chat Desired marriage. The Next Step Involves the older male of Both families Who Will Go To The golden mosque to the woman's family compound, to the marriage tie. This step IS Called the Kumala, from the verb to tie humde Meaning. The symbol of this Step Is The Sharing of Cola (feccugol goro) WHICH IS Provided by the man's family. Once this step has been "Taken IS regarded the couple married. But It Still May Be Several months, or long-lived event, Before the woman moves Actually Into Her

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Husband's compound. Here, the real wedding ceremony starts Called yangge. In Senegal, the IS Kumal Generally in the late after-noon. At That Time the bride's party starts Her Yang, WHICH IS similar to the bridal shower. That evening, friends of the groom take the bridle away in What Is Called ndiftungu. The friends of the groom Will take the bridle at the groom's mother to show Her Allegiance. There she learn about the May customs and dress of Her new family. She gets prenuptial counseling and Other advices Regarding family life. The Whole "ceremony of the flange to the grooms house moving IS Called kuurtungol Then start the dambordu, WHICH IS annum expensive step, and Involves many days of festivities. Which "during the wedding up seven days, the flange IS dressed in beautiful gowns, Her braided hair IS in special way with gold, amber and Other jewels, and finally Her hands and feet are painted with henna. (See pictures) Bargaining I Have No Change In Western Countries, merchants are expected to change the time Have THEY open the door for business. It Is Not Generally n in Developing Countries of West Africa. There Are Not Enough small bills to go around. Has no one ever changes. Even a merchant in His shade May Be Unable to take well to 5000Fcfa bill for a 1000Fcfa item. It's worse things in the market, WHERE Even a gold 1000Fcfa 500Fcfa Bill Can Be Hard to break. So, it countries to Be prepared. Get enough small bills Before you leave home. There are no credit cards, yet, in villages and small towns. How to bargain When you are quoted a starting price That Is Two Gold Three Times the normal price for the item, do not get angry and assumes the vendor IS Trying to rip you off. The first price is Usually high. Before the bargaining starts It Helps If You Know What the cost item is Supposed to ask around and What It's Worth To You. Take Into your time and energy What Is Worth To You. Is it really worth a half hour of to get Arguing from FCFA 11.000 to FCFA 10.500? Walking Away Is The surest way to find out if the vendor can not really come down "any Furth. Do not start bargaining UNLESS you're serious about buying the item. Go shopping with a Pullo and see how it's done. Take it easy. Keep it friendly and fun. It Does not Have to Be adversarial. When not to bargain

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You must bargain for Some Things, but not for everything. You do not bargain Generally For The Following:      

Anything costing less for less 500F Than Than a U.S. $ 1. Already Items Grouped Into little batteries: most items in a store mayonnaise, sardines, Coca-Cola cooked food. Other Items That Have Agreed-upon Generally Prices Rice, Salt, Sugar, Powdered milk, meat, bread, etc.. Public Transportation Bus have SUCH There Are A Few Exceptions Official Prices set by the government.

It Is Generally appropriate "to bargain for tourist items and handicrafts large quanties of Anything big, expensive house Things Delawares and someone's services

Bush-taxi travel No Amount of advice here could "Properly prepared you for the experience of traveling in West Africa. Here are a few "basic pointers: Your options are minibuses minibuses kaar, small vans and station Berlin family cars. The minibuses are cheaper, the taxis are faster and marginally more comfortable. Most taxi parks Have a syndicate of Drivers That Which controls for first leaves. UNLESS you want to hire because you can not CF firefighters annually choose Between coaches. All vehicles leave Only When full (and we do mean full). You May Also Have goats, sheep or chicken live as fellow engers. engers are Generally Accommodating and friendly. There are no fixed schedules. Most vehicles are old and Poorly Maintained; breakdowns are the rule, not the exception. Expect to stop Often to push for the golden sandy from muddy road. The worst roads get the worst taxis. As a rule, fares are fixed. You Will, howeve, need to bargain with the boys at the station For Who handle your bags, the price is unusual for oversized luggage or bikes eg. A single reasonable sized bag "should cost nothing. Begging and Asking for Money You Will see a large number of beggars in the streets of the big cities. You are Also Most Likely to Run Into celebrities Asking you for money for One Reason or Another. One can Identify Three types of groups:

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the gnaagotoobhethe, the talibe Almudos gold, and the poor. First, There Is a cultural aspect That Gives right to a category of people have SUCH the griots and gnaagotobhe gnegnbhe to ask for money. They Ask money to noble families DURING weddings, naming ceremonies etc.. Then, There Are The Almudos. The Almudos are permitted by Their school to beg for subsistence and Their For That of Their School. Does Islam allow begging as part of the charity or alms giving a fellow Human Being That can give-to a less Fortunate brother. Finally, There Is the Poor. Whether or handicapped Simply bankrupted by économique hardship, the poor make up the Majority of the beggars. As Drought, civil strife and wars in the continent multiply, Displaced People flock in large numbers to the cities searching for a better life. Someone coming from the Developed Countries "should expect to Be Often Asked for money. After All There Is That the presumption has everyone from Wealthy Wealthy Country is Himself. Common Sense Should Be the Guide thesis in boxes. It is OK to "give a tip for a service, or if one feels like it. One should "take the fact of Being Asked for money in stride and not Bring Forth the Whole" theory of political economy, nor engages in a full fledge Psychological Analysis of Cultural Gaps. The good counsel Is To Be prudent in managing one's money in a foreign country and enjoy one's travel.

Religious Activities God Willing The Will of God Alla jabhii So God Willing Literally means clustering, If God accepts and Is a common response to see you tomorrow ou autres assertions about the future. Even the firmest of arrangements Will Always Have someone with this caveat. Women and Islam The Fulani people are not as strict with women as Other Islamic societies, women are not segregated "from men in day-to-day Life, and They Are not required to cover general faces.In Their Heads gold, as in MOST of the World, Women Have a Harder Time Than Men getting respect and Being Taken Outside traditional female roles gravement. Although foreign women Receive more respect for Being Simply Foreigners, and In Some boxes are Treated as honorary men, They Will Still Find That They Are Likely accorded less respect Than Their male peers. Polygamy Many Men Have two, three or oven wives. This complicata Family

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Relationships from a Westerner's point of view co WHERE wives, halfbrothers, etc.. are new concepts. Ramadan Fasting "During the month of Ramadan (Sumayee) Which falls at different times of the year, Since the Islamic lunar calendar IS, Muslim adults fast" during the day and eat only at night. To fast IS hoorde hoorugol gold. Some Foreigners choose to fast for One or Several days, as a gesture of Solidarity. If you're not fasting, be as discreet as possible about eating or drinking "during the day. Prayer Times One of the ritual obligations of all Muslims pray five times Is To a day at specified times:     

Dawn Fajir, tisbar noon, Afternoon takussan sunset futuro, geye evening.

People Will Therefor use points of contention have a time reference.

Telling Time Punctuality Except for Religious droits, punctuality Is Not a particularly important concept in West-African societies. Nevertheless you Will Find people in the remotest villages That Carry watches as a decorative item. Nowadays, watches are part of the Even Panoply of ceremonial gifts ie weddings, etc. Tabaski. Marking Time Telling time by the hour and the minute something IS Which Probably you will not Have Much for use in Pulaar. Howeve, people mark the times of the day by noting the position Either of the sun or by the Five Muslim Prayers Which are Called out from the mosque. In addition to e gnalowma jamma, Day and night, the times of day are as Follows divide: "During the day time: Subak (Morning) fegnange (Mid-day) kikidhe (Late after noon) At night: kikidhe jamma (Evening) nder Jamma (Middle of the night) weendogo (Dawn). These are the units of time more or less Measured by the position of the sun. Other units are: weet , Day time, hiiri, Evening time, nang fudhi sun

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rise, nang muti, Sun set. The cardinal directions Subsequent are: was nang, East, towards the sun rises and from Which hirr nang, The west, the sun sets WHERE. In the Case of Specifying Futa Toro Rewo Is The north and worgo the south. Factors That It Is thesis divide everyone's day, and people make plans accordingly Their. Daily activities LUKAS changes to the season of the year. Being part of a rural farming community Will Make it important to know the yearly seasonal cycles. Daily activities for Both Men and women change with the season. Seasons Life in a village revolve around life sustaining Two farming activities and / or herding cattle. These activities change periodically with the seasons of the year. There Are Three major seasons in the year. They Are Known As Ndungu, ceedhu, and dabbunde. Ndungu, Is The rainy season. It extends Roughly Between the months of July-through late September. In a good year, the Sahel region May Receive 300-400 mm. of rain water, and Rain Will Come Every week or so. In bad years it has rain May only couple of times THROUGHOUT THE ENTIRE season. Ndungu, IS dabbunde Followed by, or the cold season. Dabbunde runs from October to February. For Westerners, it IS by far the pleasantest season. in Futa And The Easiest to work in. It gets quite chilly at night, and at Noon Even the temperatures are pleasant. Ceedhu, Or the hot season, in February or March Begins and continuous Until the rains begin. It Is a Time Marked by hot, drying winds from the North. Farmers Have DURING few "activities this time of the Year," whereas herders must work very hard to find water and pasture for Their animals. In Fulani areas, LUKAS daily activities changes to the season of the year. In a rural farming community It Is important to know the yearly seasonal cycles. Daily activities for men, women and children changed with the season. This' may be important in project planning Since people are Much busi DURING certain seasons Than others. To be effective in one's own work, It Is Better to divide up the Year Into Periods of Time Which Can Be Effectively Exploited for various Purposes DEPENDING upon the seasonal flow of work, seasonal migration patterns, and times of the Year When money and leisure time are available. In a sense, has seasonal work plan would make more sense Than Any kind of daily schedule, and Work Should Be Set goals accordingly Farming From the point of view of the farmer, the region of northern Senegal IS Divided Into Two very different ecological zones: the waalo And The jeeri. The waalo Which Is The land lies next to the Senegal River and flooded WHICH IS Every year "during the rainy season. In dabbunde, When the floods retransfer, This land is planted with millet, rice, vegetables and Some. The jeeri Is All the land to the south of the river WHICH IS not flooded. Water in the jeeri Comes from very deep wells, or from pools of water slowly evaporate Which after the rainy season. The jeeri IS planted with millet "during the rainy season.

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For people living near the river, The year is Divided Into the season for the farming jeeri (During the rains) and the season for the farming waalo (After the rains). The jeeri Does not Produce Enough to sustain a family agriculturally THROUGHOUT the year. Those Who are Not Able families to plant a second crop in the waalo Their herds depends upon for a major share of Their Livelihood. I'm his first box depends upon the THEY milk to drink and secondly upon milk products to sell or trade for millet and rice. Finally, They May occasionally sell animals in order year was Staff to Meet Need for cash.

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Evolution of Fulani Communities Numerous writers of The Work On The Fulani Makes it Clear That No simple formula for the evolution and differentiation of Fulani Communities can Be ugly down. Communities of pastoralists persist, and Will continues to do so in Their present form in regions of the savannah belt WHERE sedentary populations reposer at a low density. istrative action coupled with ecological réforme May create demarcated areas "WHERE cattle-raising Will it flourish more akin to a Basis ranching; Enclosure May lead to mixed farming. Communities of semi-sedentarists do not Represent year internship in the inevitable process towards a new sedentary way of life; THEY ARISE May-through Poverty in cattle, gold ITS reverse. It Is Believed That nomadic Fulani started "to leave Futa Toro in Senegal, looking for new pastures and water for Their herds around the year 1000. Following The next four-five centuries, THEY HAD MOST spread over the area of the Sudan-west of Lake Chad. By the 16th century THEY HAD Established Themselves at Massina (upstream from the Niger Bend) and Were Proceeding Eastward Into Hausaland. Some Settled in the 19th century at Adamawa (in the northern Cameroons). Many of the Fulani continued to Pursue a pastoral life; some, howeve, particularly in Hausaland, Gave Up Their nomadic pursuits, Settled Into Existing Urban Communities. The Oldest Plantagenet sources mentioning the Fulani Empire in the Baghirmi (Southeast of Lake Chad) are dated to the 16th century. Most Probably, the Fulani Were Welcomed by the local ruler, As They Brought 'em with cattle and constituted a market for Agricultural Products. The groups of nomadic Fulani Had to pay a tribute in cattle to the local ruler, Malthus recognizing Loved autorité. With time, a group of sedentary Fulani Began to emerge. These Often Educated Muslims have Distinguished Themselves Were Highly Appreciated and by the local rulers for Their services have civil servants, teachers and legal advisers. The Fulani cam Into with Islam Already Before Their emigration from Senegal. Conversion to Islam Was Widespread Especially Amongst The sedentary Fulani, while the Bororo (nomadic Fulani) Were less receptive to Islam. Amongst the Bororo, Islam never created Profound exchange of mentality, ugly goal as a thin shell above-the traditional cultural heritage, and this is pretty Much Remains how the situation today in the small societies of Bororo = remaining. The sedentary Fulani in Futa Toro, Futa Jallon, Masina, "as well as giving further in Haussaland, Were Strongly Influenced by Islam. Although Fulani are all over West Africa and Other Parts of Africa, the website will focus only Jamtan we Fulani areas WHERE HAD Historically Significant impacts. These regions intersect Which Almost all new West African nations include: Adamawa, Kano, Katsina, Masina, uta Jallon, Futa Toro and the Bororo / Wodaabe.

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The Adamawa Fulani

The ancient Emirate of Adamawa Was a proportion of the Sokoto Caliphate, the politically dominant empire of the Central Sudan in the 19th century. Adamawa Was Known As The wild east of the Caliphate, Fulani Settlers Were Occupied The Vast highlands of Northern Cameroon and Provided for the Slavic empire from the Neighboring areas. One nomadic Fulani started "That suppose to leave Futa Toro in Senegal, looking for new pastures and water for Their herds around the year 1000. Following The next four-five centuries, THEY HAD MOST spread over the area of the Sudan-west of Lake Chad. By the 16th century THEY HAD Established Themselves at Macina (upstream from the Niger Bend) and Were Proceeding Eastward Into Hausaland. Some Settled in the 19th century at Adamawa (in the northern Cameroons). Many of the Fulani continued to Pursue a pastoral life; some, howeve, particularly in Hausaland, Gave Up Their nomadic pursuits, Settled Into Existing Urban Communities.

The Oldest Plantagenet sources mentioning the Fulani Empire in the Baghirmi (Southeast of Lake Chad) are dated to the 16th century. Most Probably, the Fulani Were Welcomed by the local ruler, As They Brought 'em with cattle and constituted a market for Agricultural Products. The groups of nomadic Fulani Had to pay a tribute in cattle to the local ruler, Malthus recognizing Loved autorité. With time, a group of sedentary Fulani Began to emerge. These Often Educated Muslims have Distinguished Themselves Were Highly Appreciated and by the local rulers for Their services have civil servants, teachers and legal advisers. The Fulani cam Into with Islam Already Before Their emigration from Senegal. Conversion to Islam Was Widespread Especially Amongst The sedentary Fulani, while the Bororo (nomadic Fulani) Were less receptive to Islam. Amongst the Bororo, Islam never created Profound exchange of mentality, ugly goal as a thin shell above-the traditional cultural heritage, and this is pretty Much Remains how the situation today in the small societies of Bororo = remaining. The sedentary Fulani in Futa Toro, Futa Jallon, Masina, "as well as giving further in Haussaland, Were Strongly Influenced by Islam. The Sokoto Caliphate of Adamawa 'may be seen as the last link in a chain of empires Being Islamized in the Sudan-belt "during the last grand movement of Muslim expansion in Africa. With the Outbreak of Jihad in the West African Futa Jallon (in modern Guinea) in 1725 Stated the Age of An Islamic Fundamentalist and more militant, Promoted by the Fulani, sharply contrasting Earlier the spread of Islam by

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peaceful Muslim traders. Haussaland (in modern Northern Nigeria) Was Loose Groupings of nominally Muslims, small kingdoms shrugged. They Were united by a common language and culture, and the large center area Was year of trade and education, politically and Highly Economically Developed. It Is Assumed That Began to Settle the Fulani in the 15th century here. A Relatively high proportion of contention Fulani Establishing Themselves in the towns Haussa Were Educated Muslims, assimilating well Into Haussa culture. In 1804, Fulani in Haussaland rebelled Against Their Rulers Haussa. Was the rebellion led by the Fulani Uthman dan Fodio, One of the MOST reconnu Muslim Intellectuals of the region. It Originated in the public denunciation of the istrative and Religious Haussa Circumstances in the kingdom of Gobir by dan Fodio. Shrugged aristocracy, Claiming to Rule in Accordance with the principles of Islam, in reality only nominally Were Muslims. As Dan Fodio's denunciation only led to Further Oppression of Faithful Muslims, hey Called was rebellion. As the appeal for conquest spread all over Haussaland, Fulani Muslims and Other Gathered around dan Fodio and Participated in the fighting. Dan Fodio led em to success. Already in 1810, Almost all the kingdoms Haussa Were subjugated. Muslim Fulani empires Were Established and call emirates. The caliphate of the Fulani Was To Become The biggest and most influential empire of Central Africa in the 19th century. The Emirate of Adamawa Independently of the conquest in Haussaland, a local Fulani rebellion Took Place in the so-Called Fombina - the southern country (Referring to the lands in the south of the Bornu empire Nowadays Northern Adamawa). For Some Time, a modest group of Fulani HAD Been Settled in towns and villages Ruled by non-Muslims, so-Called Kirdis. The areas "of the Diamare pity and the Benue lowland pastures were excellent and attracted more and more Bororo. Around 1800, the local Fulani rebelled Against the ruling GISIGER-Kirdi, and Were Sustained By The Muslim Sultanate of Mandara Neighboring. Based on Their strong Cavalry and Their Strategic methods, They Conquered the urban centers soon, and about 1810 the hand of the town GISIGER, Marva (Fulfulde: Maroua) Fell Into Their Hands. As early as one year after the appeal of holy war by dan Fodio, in 1805, the Mobido Adama Ba-clan of the white flag of the Received the jihad, and the title as chief of command in Against the Kirdi Fombina. Adama Malthus Received the title of emir Lamido Fombina gold, have IS ET Normally Called in European literature. He Loved Established headquarters in Gurin by the River Faro purpose to it later "Moved by the River Benue Yola in 1841. Fombina later "Became Known as Adamawa, named after founder ITS Adama. The new alliance with the Fulani from Haussaland And The Religious Dimension of dan Fodio's jihad Gave new strength to the rebellion of the Fulani Fombina .. About 1850, the conquest of Adamawa in general Was Fulfilled, Some with 40 Established lamidats and MOST of the indigenous population subdued by golden rule Fulani living as Refugees in marginized areas.

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The large number of lamidats Were to Develop in the European colonial conquest Before decades. From the 1850es onward, European explorers visited Adamawa; in the 1890s, the British ROYAL NIGER COMPANY, French and German explorers competed for Obtaining treaties with the Emir (Lamido). In 1901 and Britain partitioned the Emirate, the larger part of It Became part of German Kamerun, the smaller western part, with the capital Yola, part of British NORTHERN NIGERIA. The Germans had MILITARY RESIDENTURE Established in Garu, close to Yola, Where They stationed a company of soldiers, to Discourage Obviously the Adamawans from rising in revolt. After 1901, the emirs Yola Has HAD to accept British domination Bobo Ahmadu Ahmadu Was deposed and exiled in 1909. The larger parts of their territoire, Now Located in German Kamerun Was Lost to Their influence was only part of it Being Granted to Britain by the League of Nations in 1922 as a part of the mandate of British Cameroons. Adamawa's Emirs

Independent Emirate

1848-1872 1872-1890 1890-1901

Lawal Sanda Zubeiru

Emirate of Yola Under British Protection

1901-1909 1909-1910 1910-1924 1924-1928 1928-1946 1946-1953

Bobo Ahmadu Iya Abba Muhammadu Bello Mustafa Ahmadu

Lamidos House of Modibo Adama 1848 - 1872 Bin Hamman Adama 1797 - 1872 1872 - 1890 Sanda bin Adama, brother 1890 - 1901 Zubeiru bin Adama, brother, deposed by the British, Killed while fighting the Germans (2) 18 .. - 1903 1901 - 1909 Bobbo Ahmadu bin Adama, brother, installed deposed by the British and 18 .. - 1916 1909 - 1910 Iya Mohammed bin Sanda, Sanda of its bin Adama (s.a.),

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abdicated. 1910 - 1924 Abba Muhammad bin Bobbo Ahmadu, his Bobbo Ahmadu bin Adama of 1 ... - 1924 1924 - 1928 Muhammad bin Ahmadu Bello, great-grandson of Adama Modibo (1771 - 1848; st 1806 - 1848) 1 ... - 1928 1928 - 1946 Muhammad Mustafa bin Muhammad Abba (sa) 1900-1946 (1) Most of Its territoire howeve Became part of German Cameroon. (2) In order to escape French influence, accepted protection ET Of the R.N.C. as early as 1893. Notable Adamawa Fulani: Modibo Adama and Ahmadu Ahidjo Modibo Adama In the early 1800? S Modibo Adama Brought the news of Usman dan Fodio? S jihad in Sokoto in northern Nigeria What is now. At That Time, It Was regarded Hausaland. Encouraged Modibo Fulbe from the area to in the jihad or holy war. Dan Fodio Was Asked to come and help, and Fulani families in ed the Fight. Theys enslaved or drove out all non-Fulbe. The ruler of the area Lived in Yola (present-day Nigeria), Was Called a laminate, and heads of families have HAD chiefs Under Him. This made the Fulani jihad the rulers of the area, And They named it after Modibo Adama Adamawa, Their first leader. Ahmadu Ahidjo Ahmadu Ahidjo Was a Pullo (singular for Fulani) of Common Origin. He HAD Been to Western schools and tried to get northerners from Cameroon to Be more active in politics. In 1946 He Was Elected to the Territorial Assembly. ET Founded in 1948 the Friendship Association of Benue. When a coalition government Was Formed, He Was Deputy Prime In 1958 ET Helped create the Union of Cameroon. By the time Cameroon ITS got independence on January 1, 1960, Ahidjo Was Already head of state, to lead the first after independence. Ahidjo Strengthened the Muslims, the north section of Cameroon, the Fulani and Especially Languages One could "Malthus say, That There Was Many of Languages Before the arrival

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of the Fulani. To contribute "Even more to the confusion, the Muslim conquerors Brought with Them Even More, Differing languages, Fulfulde, Haussa, Kanuri and Arab. There was an Obvious Need for a lingua franca for all of the new entity have Adamawa Was shaped. In general, Fulfulde Was To Become The new lingua franca of the region, although different languages Kirdi Were prevail in certain areas. This have a contrary to the rest of the Sokoto Caliphate, WHERE Haussa Became the pre-dominant language, ALSO Among the Fulani. In the lamidats of Ngaoundere and Tibati, the language Mbum Became Widespread've got the Fulfulde, Even in the royal courts. Nowadays, French, and to a certain degree, Français Has Taken Over the role as lingua franca in Adamawa. Traditions The Fulani nomads live in camps while wet season planting and harvesting. The pastures are lush and green, and the cattle graze freely. These camp consisted of beehive-like huts made of woven twigs, leaves, and grass. "During the dry seasons THEY camp in portable huts, moving the cattle or sheep to wellWatered lands in the flood pity. Adamawa Fulani men hunt, trade livestock, and tending to the herds. While the older men exercise the leadership of the tribes, It Is the duty of the younger men to move the herds. Young boys are responsible for Helping Their older brothers with the herds. The women milk the cattle Usually butter and sell in the markets. The Fulani are a Proud People Who Teach Young Children To Have Their Tribal Dignity. Fulani children are required to Love Their Mothers and Their respect for elders. They Are Also Taught to hold on to Strictly Pulaaku important gains have SUCH Generosity, honesty, and modesty. While Fulani children are infants Still, marriages are arranged for Them by Their Parents. When A Boy Is Initiated Into manhood, hey moves Into A Separate hut. This hut Will Eventually Become The Loved home of bridegroom. Young girls look forward to Being married, Since This Will Give Them A Higher social status. Having Many children Will Also Bring Them honor. The Fulani serie unusual way of Initiating Boys Into manhood. The young boys must beat Each Other Across the chest with walking sticks while Showing no signs of pain. THROUGHOUT the Rest of Their Lives, thesis scars are proudly have shown signs of courage. There are Many taboos Within The Fulani culture. For example, They Are a first forbidden to call his daughter by name gold. When in public, wives must stay at a distance, are intended Watched over by Their Husbands. Goat Meat May Be Eaten and not only beef IS Eaten at formal ceremonies. Culture Shock (nderkaaku) The Revolt of Young Fulani herders in Adamawa With the exchange Introduced by the modern currents, the Fulani of Adamawa

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in the Ngaoundere area are increasingly distraught by The Changing Relationships between parents and children. When young adults THEY Become, boys do not obey Their fathers anymore. Theys escape for a life of adventure, in Called nderkaaku the local Fulani language. The parents are Offended by this situation, Even Though It Has Taken Many place for generations. This is Especially true for a family Without cattle. To seek fortune Their Own Elsewhere, the Young Men Have to leave home. The Inheritance Law Which Favors The Eldest est aussi Another source of rebellion. The pervasive influence MOST Purpose Is The City Life. When the young men take the cattle to the urban markets, They learn about modern life and Become Their Further remote from rural families. Though Overall, despite the family Disapproval, this rebellion IS seen as inevitable Exchange Which May Events Contribute to the Enrichment of the family to a dynamic and Fulani diaspora. Glossary of acephalous From Greek, aképhalos, Meaning headless, or Without head. Term Used for Societies Without defines leaders. Acephalous societies Were the norm in Many Parts of Historical Africa, in Particular in the tropical rainforest areas. ardo Fulfulde ar'do, plural ar'du'be. In Adamawa, ardo Could Be translated as chief of the district. Mostly a term of a clan leader of the Bororo. In Several dialects, ardo means clustering leader of a group of Fulani, gold Simply leader. Bororo Fulfulde Mbororo. Originally a condescending term, the nomadic Fulani Describing. Alternative are Cattle-Fulani Fulani gold-Bush. Emir Arabic amiir: Actually Meaning Commander, Leader, Prince, Emir. Emir Is The MOST common term in European literature for rulers in Adamawa ou autres places Being direct subjects to the Sultan of Sokoto. The correct term in Fulfulde would Be laamii'do (Contrary to laam'do, WHICH IS Called Lamido in European literature).

Emirate Imaara Arabic, plural imaaraat: Actually Meaning Power, Emirate. In this context it IS Referred to as a Fulani empire, headed by Emir year. Fombina Fulfulde Fommbina: Actually Meaning The South. Early term Referring to

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Adamawa. Jihad Arabic. "Jihad Has Two meanings: one, non-violent Within militaire armes Struggling For A Life of Virtue, comme au, fighting for justice, a supreme goal in Islamic Teachings. Kanuri Kanuri Kanuri: Actually Meaning a person of the Kanuri people, or Kanuri: Language or culture of the Kanuri people. Important people and language of the central Sudan. The Kanuri Were the people heading The Powerful Bornu Empire. Lamidat This Word Is a European construction and does not exist in Fulfulde, WHERE IS Called Laamu this unit. The Word Is Constructed Of The Fulfulde word and the Arab emirate laamii'do. Malthus, Lamidat means clustering Fulani empire headed by a Lamido. Lamido Fulfulde laam'do, plural laamibe. Originate in the verb laamaago; governance / head, and Is a term Describing the ruler of the Gutman Of A Lamidat, Which in turn IS subject to year emir. Mayo Fulfulde maayo: River. Modibo Fulfulde moodibbo, plural moodi'b'be: loanwords from the Arabic mu'addib: Term Describing year Educated Man, Normally a Koran teacher in school. Sokoto Caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate term Is The European form. It Has Its origin in the capital of the empire, Sokoto. The term caliphate in reality IS Misleading. The ruler of the empire Called Himself musulmi Sarkin, or ruler of the Muslims. Sufism Within Islam, the Sufism IS Characterized by mysticism. While Islam Normally Emphasize the great distance Between God and man, and thereby Often Does not Meet The Needs of the Faithful to Come Into with the transcendent, Sufism opens a door-to-the unity with Allah. For examplethrough the Leading Life Of An asceticism or suggestive Practicing exercises,

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Each and everybody could "get to feel the closeness of Allah, howeve after going-through a long process. Sufism, Malthus, WAS more popular Than orthodox Islam, and more suited for Therefor the spread of the religion or mission. From the 12th century, Sufism has Widespread Became popular version of Islam Amongst ordinary people, the poor and the illiterate. In Africa it Gained great popularity and Became widespread. Abstract from: Rise and Fall of the Adamawa Emirate By Rainer Chr. Hennig (translated introduction to thesis, 1993) The Bagirmi People name: Bagirmi Fula Language: Bagirmi Fulfulde The Fulani are Bagirmi sub-group of The Much larger Fulani tribe has spread across That Is Much of West Africa. The Mostly Bagirmi are found in the Countries ofChad and Central Africa. (See statistics below) The Fulani are named and Grouped According To Their locations and occupations. The Fulani are a Bagirmi branch of the Fulani Who occupy the region of south Bagirmicentral Chad. Theys Have Also Eastward spread and are now in shares of the Central African Republic. Their language, Fulfulde Bagirmi, Belongs to the West Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family. The Traditions of Bargirmi Fulani Combining agriculture with herding, the Fulani are semi-Bagirmi sedentary herdsmen. Some Other Fulani groups unlikable Whose families travel with 'em, the home has Bagirmi Fulani hairpins Where They live for half the year. "During the dry season, grazing ground and water When are scarce, They take Their cattle from the homestead in search of greener pastures. The head of the family, Loved Along with wives and younger children, stay at home and Usually tends to a small herd and the crops. The young married sounds and Their families leave with the rest of the cattle. Hence, the Fulani can move and desire When THEY can pay Also Kinsmen and tends to Laborers to the home vegetable gardens. In this way, They Can Be Rewarded and enriched by the spectrum of Both ENDS: herding and agriculture. At the homestead, agriculture Provider for the Livelihood of the People, with pearl millet and sorghum as the staple crops. Corn, beans, peanuts, melons, and cucumbers are grown Aussi. Horses, sheep, goats, chickens, and dogs are Kept at the family farm, and Wild Rice is Gathered from the fields by the women. Family lineages Settlements in the Sami village and family form compounds. Polygamy (the practice of wife HAVING More Than One) IS Commonly practiced. Saddle LUKAS IS Sometimes Picked to the number of cattle she possessive Since cattle are a symbol of Wealth Among all Fulani. At the markets, the trade Fulani Bagirmi Their dairy products for grain, farm equipment, and cloth. Also the market place has got reservations for social gatherings. Village dances and ceremonies are Held in the Market. The Fulani Were one of the first groups in Africa to convert to Islam. Today, the Bagirmi are 99.9% Muslim. Howeve, They Still continues to Practice Many of Their old Fulani traditions. To a Fulani, the important Things in life are family, cattle, strong morals, and beauty. Also Theys year value excellence in poetry, singing, and dancing. To the Fulani children are symbols of the future. For this Reason, a special ceremony Authority or to Celebrate the birth of his firstborn was and the naming of a sound. The Fulani do not believe in afterlife year. Instead, They Believe That a person lives from generation to generation-

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through Loved Children. With a sound man's name was Will and features remain. Chad Statistics Country: Chad Capital: N'Djamena. Official languages: French and Arabic. Official name: Republic of Chad (Republic of Chad). Area: 495.755 sq. mi. (1.284 million sq. Km). Greatest distance: east-west, 640 mi. (1.030 km) north-south, 1.097 mi. (1.765 km). Elevation: Highest : Emi Koussi, 11.204 ft. (3.415 m.) Above sea level. Lowest: Lake Chad, 922 ft. (281 m) Above sea level. Population: Estimated 2000 population - 7,307,000; density, 15 persons per sq. mi. (6 per sq. Km) distribution, 78 percent rural, 22 percent urban. 1993 census - 6,279,931. Chief products: Agriculture: cattle, cotton, millet, peanuts, rice, sorghum. Manufacturing: beer, cigarettes, textiles. National anthem: The Chad (The Chadian) Flag: The flag Has vertical blue, yellow, and red stripes. Blue symbolization the sky and hope. Yellow stands for the Sun. Red Represents fire and unity Money: Basic unit, frank. One hundred cents EQUAL one franc. Central African Republic Statistics Country: Central African Republic Capital: Bangui. Official languages: French .. Official name: Central African Republic (Central African Republic). Area: 240.535 sq. mi. (622.984 sq. Km). Elevation: Highest : Population: Estimated 2000 population: 3,731,000; density, 15 persons per sq. mi. (6 per sq. Km) distribution, 39 percent urban, 61 percent rural. 1988 census: 2,463,616 Chief products: Products: Agriculture: bananas, coffee, cotton, livestock, palm kernels, peanuts, rubber, sesame, yams. Forestry: timber. Mining: diamonds, gold. National anthem: Flag: Horizontal blue, white, green, and yellow stripes are at the center Divided by a red vertical stripe. A yellow star representing The Guiding Light of the future. Red, white, and blue recall the UK flag. Green, yellow, and red are for the People and Their unity. Money: Basic unit, frank Ref: The World Book

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The Bauchi Fulani Some of the Fulani herds with Their travel, Some Are Settled, Some mix and herding with farming. The Bauchi Fulani are nomadic herdsmen. A few "hundred years ago, the Hausa Fulani of Conquered the northern Nigeria. Though THEY continues to Dominate the Hausa, Fulani, the language and the ADOPTED Have Some customs of the Hausa. The area Is a grassy THEY occupy savanna with hot temperatures and high humidity. Lions, giraffes, elephants, pigs and wild animals Are Among The Many That Inhabit the region. Traditions of the Bauchi Fulani Because the Bauchi Fulani are nomadic herdsmen, gold Bororo, Their Livelihood IS Based on Their cattle. Owning cattle Is a symbol of health and well-being Among all Fulani. In fact, a Man LUKAS IS RespectEd to the number of cattle ET owns and He Knows How Much about herding. Will choose Sometimes a man Loved LUKAS flange to the number of cattle she owns. Milk from the cattle Is The staple food of the Fulani. Their daily diet includes Usually milk, butter, and cheese. Although the Fulani herds travel with Their, They Also Live With The Hausa farmers "for part of the Year. Together, They make use of the fertile land "during the rainy season. Many Hausa Become frustrated Because sacrifice part of the crops' may be Eaten gold Trampled by the herds. Howeve, no ill feelings linger, Since the manure left behind Provides fertilizer for the next season's crops. A typical Bauchi Fulani family consists "of a Man, His Wife, and His Wives and sounds with Their Children. THROUGHOUT the year, the families travel from place to place with Their herds. Each member of the family Has Specifying droits. The men's Responsibilities include herding the cattle, Tending to politique affairs, Treating Illness, and making plans for traveling. The women's milking the cows droits include, Preparing butter and cheese, making the clothes and blankets, and Preparing the daily meals. The younger boys help Their older brothers with the herds, while the girls help Their Mothers. When a boy Reach the age of 12, hey Enters Sukaabe, Young Adulthood gold. At That Time, HE IS Taught the rules of respect, courtesy, and justice to the strong LUKAS moral code of the Bauchi. The Fulani Were one of the first people groups in Africa to Be Converted to Islam, and today, Almost all of the Bauchi Fulani are Muslim. In Spite of Their devotion to Islam, howeve, Many Fulani continued to observe Their sacrifice part of pre-Islamic practices. The Bauchi Fulani feel very Strongly about Morality. Their lifestyle embraces a high code of ethics, Which include compliance, Generosity, modesty, and kindness. This code of moral behavior, Called Pulaaku, Must Be Strictly Followed for the Fulani to Be regarded part of the Bororo, Who are the purist regarded Fulani group. To the Fulani children are the future. They Do not believe in afterlife year, so

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children are the only means clustering by Which THEY can live on from generation to generation. Theys Believe That Their sound-through, Their names and features Will remain. If a Fulani dies with no children, 'as if It Is ET dies fewer spectators. Nigeria Summary background Most of Nigeria's people live in rural areas. Since the mid-1900's, Many Nigerians Have Moved to the cities. Lagos Is The nation's commercial center. Nigeria's other large cities include Ibadan, Kano, Ogbomosho, and Uyo. The Country Has More than 250 different ethnic groups Hausa 18.5%, 18.5% Yoruba, Igbo 14.1%, 4.9% Toroobe Fulani, Kanuri Yerwa 3%. These ethnic groups Differ from One Another in language and in Their sacrifice part of customs and traditions. The Three Largest ethnic groups are, in order of size, the Hausa, the Yoruba, Igbo and the (also spelled Ibo). These ethnic groups for Three about three-fifth of the total population of Nigeria. The Hausa people live in northern Nigeria and Primarily in the Neighboring Countries of Niger and Chad. Most of em are farmers ", And Many Also Craftworkers and work as traders. The Hausa Have Lived in the area for more Than a Thousand Years. "During the 1200's, the Fulani, a people Who Originally from cam What are now Senegal and Gambia, Began To Settle In The Hausa territoire. The Fulani Took control of the region "during the early 1800's. Because of the intermixing of the Two Peoples, the group IS Sometimes Called the Hausa-Fulani. The Yoruba live in the southwestern part Mainly of the country and in Benin and Togo, Two Nations That lie to the west of Nigeria. Many of the Yoruba live in cities and farm land in the countryside The surroundings. Several Yoruba cities, Including Lagos Were Founded Hundreds of years ago. The Igbo has majorité form of the population in southeastern Nigeria. In addition, a large number of Igbo live in Other Areas of the country. "During the period" of British rule in the 1900's, Many Igbo accepted Western education and ways of life more Quickly Than Nigerian ethnic groups comme au. The Igbo Were Also more Willing to travel. As a result, the Igbo Held Many important positions in business and government "during the period" of colonial rule. Other ethnic groups in Leading the country include the Nupe and Tiv of central Nigeria, the Edo, Urhobo, Itsekiri and of the Edo and Delta states, the Ijo of the Rivers state, the Efik and Ibibio of the Cross River State, and the Kanuri of northeastern Nigeria. Français Is The official language of Nigeria am and is Taught in Schools THROUGHOUT the country. Howeve, Français Is Not the Country's Most Commonly Used Language. Each of the 250 ethnic groups more Than That live in Nigeria Has Its Own separate language. The Three Widely Used languages are MOST of the Three Largest giving further ethnic groups: Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo and. A majorité of the People of Nigeria speak more Than one language.

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Theys May use the language of Their ethnic group on MOST opportunities, and use another language Français gold at Other Times. In addition, Nigerians are Muslims Who uses Arabic while Taking Part in Religious various activities.In the cities, Many Nigerians wear Western-style clothing. Purpose other city dwellers and people in Rural Areas MOST wear traditional clothing. Traditional garments for men and women in Nigeria include the long, loose dresses made of white gold brightly colored fabrics. The chief of Nigeria foods include yams, corn, rice, and beans. Also The People eat plantains (a kind of banana) and the roots of the cassava plant. Nigerian Food is cooked in palm oil Often golden peanut oil, and it 'may be seasoned with red peppers Highly. Some Nigerian meals feature beef, chicken, fish, or lamb. Aim in general, Most Nigerians do not eat meat Much. Popular Beverages in Nigeria include beer and wine was made from That Is the sap of palm trees. Some city dwellers Also drink coffee and tea. Nigerian Muslims Who obeyed the Laws of Islam May not drink alcoholic beverages. Nigeria Statistics Country: Nigeria Capital: Abuja. Official languages: Français Official name: Federal Republic of Nigeria Area: 356.669 sq. mi. (923.768 sq. Km). Greatest distance: east-west, 800 mi. (1,287 km) north-south, 650 mi. (1,046 km). Coastline: 478 mi. (769 km). Elevation: Highest : Highest: Dimlang Peak 6.699 ft. (2.042 m.) Above sea level. Lowest: sea-level. Population: Estimated 2000 population: 128,786,000; density, 361 persons per sq. mi. (139 per sq. Km) distribution, 84 percent rural, 16 percent urban. 1991 census: 88,992,220. Chief productsAgriculture: beans, beef and hides, cocoa, cassava, corn, cotton, millet, palm oil and palm kernels, peanuts, rice, rubber, yams. Mining: columbite, limestone, natural gas, petroleum, tin. Manufacturing: cement, chemicals, clothing, food products, textiles. National anthem: Arise, O Compatriots. Flag: Money: Basic unit, the naira. One hundred kobo EQUAL one naira. Ref: The World Book

The Fulani of Benin and Togo See also Bororo-Wozaave Today, the Fulani are named and Grouped According To Their locations, occupations, and dialects. TheFulani of Benin occupy the northern and central regions of the country. They Speak Fulfulde, a Niger-Congo language.

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Similarly, tET Togo Fulani are giving further Fulani living in the northern regions of Togo, Who emigrated from Benin. Ltr Bororos, Nomadic herdsmen gold, Who Their cattle and goats take from place to place in search of new grazing land. They Speak Fulfuldee, From the West-Atlantic branch of the Niger Congo language family. The Togo Fulani are very similar to Their Neighbors in Fulani Benin in life styles and features. The Benin and Togo are Fulani shepherds Primarily, With Their lives revolving around the herds. In the rainy season, the cattle and goats graze on the lush fertile land near the village. "During the dry season, the cattle and goats are Taken to Other Areas, wells are dug WHERE wide for Their watering. Other Areas These are crop lands Sometimes Belonging to nearby farmers. Though Some crops' may be Eaten gold Trampled by the herds, no ill feelings linger, Since the manure left behind Provides fertilizer for the next season's crops. For the nomadic Fulani cattle Are Their MOST important possessions Since THEY symbolization Wealth and status. The more cattle a man owns, the more respect HE IS Given; and 'may be a flange phrasal LUKAS To The Amount of cattle she owns. The Fulani have consumed milk daily Their hand food. Milk Is very important to Their Diet, eat little meat THEY Since few "and vegetables. Butter and goat cheese are traded Often at the Markets for Grain and Other items. Millet IS Used Each Day in a porridge for the evening meal. "During the dry season, the Fulani live in portable shelters made of flexible twigs Covered with leaves and grass mats. Temporary corrals for the herds surround EACH hut. Boys over 15 years old do Their Work "under the direction and supervision of Their fathers. THEY dig wells and water the herds, while younger brothers Their help by running Errands for em. "During the rainy season, the Wuro (village) Is The Center of Fulani society. Women care for the Children; prepared butter, cheese, and daily meals, tending to the gardens ménage; and gather wild rice and berries. The men tend the herds and to make clothes Their Own. Making clothes Is a Way to Express Himself and man can show Loved individuality and personality. The Benin and Togo Fulani, Fulani like Many Other groups, Believe That It Is a sign of Weakness To Be controlled by fear; Malthus, They Seldom show fear in public. Fulani boys are Initiated Into manhood in a Somewhat unusual inmate itted Called Sharo. In the Sharo initiation Friends Who are Being Initiated Beat Each Other With Their over-the-chest walking sticks. No sign of pain Is To Be shown, and There Should Be a additional willingness to Receive more afflictions. Some Have Died in this procedure, the purpose That Many do live proudly show Their scars as marks of honor. The Fulani Fear Being Alone Disliked gold. Theys Often talk with friends to Overcome the feeling of loneliness. Howeve, this company IS Need for Concealed in public, have tended to hide the Fulani Their feelings. Only Through songs Do They express love gold Such Thing as The Need for others.

The Bororo / Wozaave Overview Language: Kano-Katsina-Bororo Fulbhe

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HiringCameroon, Chad, and Nigeria.

Bororo-Wozaave (read as wodhaabhe) Peoples are acutually a subgroup of the larger Fulbe-speaking Fulani. THEY prefer to Call Themselves Bororo. Fulani are nomadic people has Who Have Been Influential in regional politics, economics, and Western stories THROUGHOUT Africa for over a Thousand Years. Wodaabe live in northern Nigeria, in shares of Cameroon, And chad. Have TheysPlayed a Significant Role in furthering Fulani domination in the area. The height of the Fulani Empire Was Between the early 1900s and early 1800s. Was this power consolidé Under Usman dan Fodio and centered in northern Wa Nigeria. Dan Fodio Was a Devout Muslim Who Used Religious fervor to ignite Furini to Undertaker series of holy wars. Following The early success of Islamic warriors, non-Islamic Fulani ed Ranks With Their fellows to form extensive year and Powerful Empire. The Two Most Significant Factors in Political Systems Fulani are clientage and competition. In order to gain office has politique Fulani man would Have to compete Loved Among Fellows for the right to rule. He could "show politique Loved Favor by Demonstrating That He Had a wide in the form of FOLLOWING Individuals and families. By agreeing to Become The Client A Powerful Man of Gold family, a subject would offer tribute in the form of gifts and in exchange for politique security. Often men Wozaave Held considerable politique Power Within Their Own Communities nomadic, as well as "Within The Communities in Which THEY Settled. The Wozaave, Also Known as Bororo Achieved Numerous celebrity statusthrough National Geographic articles, film and television documentaries. They Are Known best for the Festival of Gerewol Which translate as Choosing the best one. The event Is a show Consisting of a succession of ceremonial songs and dances by young men Who Performed Parade Themselves in front of women, Who Then the best thing from Among Them. These tall and handsome men, dressed in traditional costume, Many Spend hours in front Themselves Creatively adorning paint and make-up. Traditions of the Bororo Mainly nomadic Bororo are herders and traders.The Bororo Fulani follow the traditions of Their ancestor, and are regarded the purist of all Fulani groups. These nomadic herdsmen Consider the long-horned cattle to Be a prized possession and Have Dedicated Their Lives to caring for Their herds. Owning cattle Is a symbol of health and well-being Among all Fulani. In fact, the level of a Man's Respect is based on the number of cattle ET owns and He Knows How Much about herding. The cattle Have Their Own and names are Treated with affection by the Bororo. Milk Is The staple food of the Fulani. Their daily diet includes Usually milk, butter, and cheese. THROUGHOUT the year, the Bororo Fulani travel from place to place with Their herds. Each member of the family Has Specifying droits. The men's Responsibilities include herding the cattle, Tending to politique affairs, Treating Illness, and making plans for traveling. The women's milking the cows droits include, Preparing butter and cheese, making the clothes and blankets, and Preparing the daily meals. They Are Also required to obey Their husband's

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orders. The roads THEY Established in western / centra Africa Provided extensive links THROUGHOUT the region fostered That Economic and Political Parties Between Otherwise isolated ethnic groups. Dairy products Produced from cattle traded to sedentary farmers "Were agricole for products and luxury items. These items could "Then to Be Traded trans-Saharan traders have SUCH the Tuareg for shipment north. Fine woven cloth produced by the Wodaabe Was regarded a luxury item That Could Be Traded on the international market. The Wozaave are found in Bongor Also, in Western Chad, "During the dry season and move to the Kanem Prefecture, North of Lake Chad, During the rainy season for June. At the end of August, or early September, THEY start Their journey south with cattle, to take advantage of all the new growth of grass. Some travel 800 km. (500 miles) south as far as the Central African Republic. As well as cutting cattle with huge horns, the Bororo in Chad Have long-legged sheep Which Have a black and white hindquarters front half. Their Art is not only famous for using motifs from Their Way of Life, purpose Also from the modern world. Celebrations are a time for dancing and singing. The women are tattooed, and the men dress and make up to dance. Spend long hours in Theys story-telling, for the Wozaave do not use Fulfulde Plantagenet. . Children learn values and pride from the Fulani tribal elders, Who are Eager to down the Fulani traditions. The Bororo feel very Strongly about Morality, and Constantly Strive To Be Generous, Honest, and Respectful. Ltr very reserved people, Who are shy and modest in public. Family relationships are Therefor Restrained. Even Mothers are not permitted to Be With Their infant sounds, Since The Bororo Feel That It Is to Be Inappropriate for affection shown in public. The Fulani Also Have a strong concept of beauty. Fulani infants Receive decorative scars on Their faces have symbols of beauty. The Children Will Receive more scarring and strictures on Their Forehead As They grow older. Cameroon Statistics (See Also Chad and Nigeria statistics Statistics) Country: Cameroon Capital: Yaounde. Official languages: Français and French .. Official name: Republic of Cameroon (Republic of Cameroon). Area: 183.569 sq. mi. (475.442 sq. Km). Greatest distances north-south, 770 mi. (1,239 km) east-west, 450 mi. (724 km). Coastline, 250 mi. (400 km). Elevation: Highest Mount Cameroon, 13.353 ft. (4.070 m.) Above sea level. Lowest, sea level, Along the coast. Population: Estimated 2000 population: 15,245,000; density of 83 persons per sq. mi. (32 per sq. Km) distribution, 56 percent rural, 44 percent urban. 1987 census: 10,493,655. Major peoples in size order

Major Religions

Adamawa Fulani 8.6% Ewondo 8.1% Cameroonian Creole 5.8% k

Christians 63.7% Muslim 24.3% Capital: Yaounde.

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Bulu Fang 4% Bamileke-Bandjoun 3% Chief products: Agriculture and forestry: bananas, cocoa beans, coffee, cotton, palm oil, root crops, rubber, timber. Manufacturing: Aluminum, beer, cocoa, petroleum products, shoes, soap. Mining: petroleum. National anthem: O Cameroon, Thou Cradle of Our Fathers. Flag: The flag Has green, red, and yellow vertical stripes, with a yellow star in the center of the red stripe. Money: Ref: The World Book

Fellaata Overview of Sudan The labor population groups in Sudan are: Arabs, Nubians, Beja, Fur, Zaghawa, Masalit Daju, and Berti. Howeve There Is a Significant number of West Africans Including Fulani. People of West African origin in Sudan over a number one million and a half. Together, West Africans Who Have Become Sudanese National and nonnational residents from West Africa make up 6.5 percent of the Sudanese population. In the mid-1970s, West Africans HAD Been Estimated at more Than 10 percent of the population of the northern provinces. Some descendants of persons Who Were HAD Arrived five generations or more Earlier, others Were recent immigrants. Some HAD come in self-imposed exile, Unable to Accommodate to the colonial power in Their Homeland. Others HAD Been pilgrims to Mecca, controlled settling Either way gold on Their return. Many cam over decades in the race of the great dispersion of the nomadic Fulani; Arrived others, particularly after World War II, as rural and urban Laborers gold to take up land as Peasant cultivators. The Fellaata (See also Tekrur) Nearly 60 percent of people included in the West African category Were Said to Be of Nigerian origin (locally Called Borno after the Nigerian emirate That Was Their homeland). Given Hausa dominance in northern Nigeria and the Widespread use of Their language There and Elsewhere, Some non-Haus Might Also Be Called Themselves as Ha and DESCRIBE SUCH. Aim the Hausa Themselves, particularly giving further along in Sudan, preferred to Be Called Takari. Typically, the term Applied to the Fulani in Sudan Was Fellati, goal Sudanese Also Used for Others That term West Africans. The dialect of Fellati Language is Called Gombe. The Fulani nomads Were found in Many Parts of central Sudan from Darfur to the Blue Nile, And They occasionally competed with indigenous populations for pasturage. In Darfur groups of Fulani origin adapted in various ways to the presence of the Baqqara tribes. Retained all aspects Some of Their culture and language. A few "HAD Become Much like Baqqara in language and in Others respectively, although THEY Tended to retain Their Own breeds of cattle and

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ways of handling them". Some of the Fulani groups in the eastern states Were sedentary, descendants of sedentary Fulani of the ruling group in northern Nigeria. Many Sudanese speak Arabic; Also Some speak Ha and Songa have second languages. Mahdist is group bilingual in Fulfulde and Sudanese Spoken Arabic. Few Monolingual; MOST are children. Previous migration from Sokoto, Nigeria; Maasina, Mali, and Liptaako Jelgooji, Burkina Faso, Adamawa and Gombe, Nigeria, and the lineage Wodaabe Have Settled in Sudan. Some Also from Cameroon. Predominant Fulfulde in Sudan IS Adamawa. Influenced by Arabic. Muwalid is group Monolingual in Sudanese Spoken Arabic. The Sudan diaspora of the Hausa-Fulani The Sudan diaspora of the Hausa-Fulani people Was Formed, definitively, around the first decade of this century. The first settlement, in May Wurno is the right bank of the Blue Nile, soon Became prosperous Enough for a few "daughter Communities to Be Established in the Gezira area, The Land Between the Two Niles. Presently, Almost all the population centers in Gezira and the Blue Nile Along Have a foreign quarter Mainly Inhabited by people of West African origin, the Majority of Hausa-Fulani Being thesis. Mostly sedentary ltr. Beside, Along the pilgrimage road Between West Africa and Jidda-Makka, the so-Called Alhaji Highway, Every Town Has A sizeable West African quarter, Geneina and Nyala is from the Chad border and Bor Sudan to Suakin on the Red Sea. There, Some Of The Gutman Percentages are Constantly on the move, the way to the gold back from Makkah. People in the Sudan Hausa-Fulani community call Themselves tàkaarii. Singular forms are Either gold tàkaarà tàkùruurù, Obviously Derived from year Arabic denomination (sg. takruur, pl. Takaarii) of the Well-Known Senegalese ethnic group, Tukulors. The hosts, Arab people, call contention Generally Diaspora settlements Fellati quarters. The dominant language in the Diaspora IS takaaranci, /-ANCI / Being Ha suffix denoting language. From May Wurno town down south to the Ethiopian border, There are quite a few "Populous Hausa-Fulani settlements Scattered Along Both banks of the Blue Nile. Here in this riverine strip, the lingua franca of the Diaspora IS Filatanci, the Fula language. of the diaspora are Mostly trilingual: Fula, Hausa / Takaaranci and Arabic. On the Other Hand, Alhaji Along the Highway, the language is Hausa Diaspora / Takaaranci. Transient are Hausa speakers Monolingual Usually with various degrees of fluency in Arabic. The Revival Of The Fula language Along the Blue Nile At the time of Jihad in Hausaland Around the Beginning of the 19th century, Fulani jihadists HAD Hausanized Already Been inside thoroughly and Their mother tongue Was Hausa, Usman dan Though Hodiyo and Their Loved Children "could express thoughts in Fula. Aim the Fula language soon Became obsolete in the Sokkoto Empire, and by the time of the last independent Sardauna, Sultan Muhammadu Attahiru II, the Fulani ruling class Completely

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abandonné the Fula language. Therefor, May Wurno When Bello, Sultan of has its Attahiru, and His followers Wurno Founded in May the town and started "the Sudan diaspora, the language of the Diaspora Must Have Been Hausa. Purpose in the present, the dominant language in the Hausa-Fulani diaspora is the Blue Nile upstream from May Wurno Towner IS Fula Along with Hausa / Takaaranci. The revival of the Fula language is very enigmatic, Because The Diaspora people Obviously Did Not Need To Introduce a New Language Other Than Arabic, the language of Their host people. Also, There Existed No Fula group in the Sudan to influence the Hausa-Fulani 'newly Established community and to act as a model. This Question Was Answered ou partly by Mukoshi Ibrahim, grandson of a Bello Wurno May. On the way to Gezira, the survivors Spent Some Time in Adamawa, the WHERE Hausanization of the Fulani rulers Was Not complete yet. There in Adamawa, Bello and His Party Were Given wives and female slaves have sadaka. Theys continued together with the hijra thesis' newly Acquired womenfolk. These women Were Mostly Monolingual, and spoke only in Fula. Therefor, When the second generation Grew Up in the Sudan diaspora, THEY BOTH Received Their mother's language, Fula, and Their father's language, Hausa. That Was the Way in Which Fula Revived in the community. In the kind of popular history, Many legends of communal foundation Contain s of male and female hail from Who Two Different ethnic groups live together aim to come, due to war, natural disaster or slavery. Certainly, if the Adamawa women HAD not the language Brought Into the community, it would impossible to find Have Been source material for the revival of the Fula language. .. Ref: Ibrahim Hamza, Sean O'Fahey: Diaspora and Linguistic Atavism; Hausa Language in the Sudan

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The Fulakunda The Fulakunda are a sub-group of the Fulani, on a vast cluster of peoples living THROUGHOUT central and western Africa. Primarily They Live in GuineaBissau, Senegal and The Gambia in small villages of round, mud, straw-roofed huts. They Do subsistence farming of corn, millet, peanuts and rice. As the Fulani migrated Southward to Guinea Bissau and-through "during the Fifteenth Century, sacrifice part of 'em mixed with the Mandingo in the area. Those Who Were intermarried with the Mandingo regarded black, gold preto. These Fulani Became Known as Fula Preto, gold Fulakunda. They Speak Fulakunda (a Fulani language), Which Belongs to the West Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family. The area lies THEY Inhabit Between Guinea Bissau, Guinea, and Gambia. They Live Among the Fulani, Mandingo and Other Peoples in the forests of southern Senegal.

Although the mixed cultures Fulakunda Have and Have intermarried with Other Groups in the area, They Still Practice Many of the customs and traditions of the traditional Fulani. Their lives center around Their herds of cattle or sheep. In fact, the more cattle one owns, the wealthier HE IS regarded to be. In addition, Some are Fulakunda Hired as herdsmen for various kingdoms in the Sudan, just as Their fathers Were Before Them. Mixing agriculture with herding, the Fulakunda consumes grains and milk as Their staple foods. Seldom Meat Is Eaten. In fact, only DURING important formal events, as the naming ceremony SUCH gold at the birth of a first sound IS beef consumed. Even Then, It Is Usually Eaten only for ceremonial purposes. Donkeys, chickens, and dogs are Kept on the farms. The Wuro (village) Is The Center Of Fulakunda Society. It Is There That the women do MOST of Their Work. Theys prepare the evening meal, Which Takes about five hours or oven. Theys gather grass and twigs Also for the construction of Their huts. Milking the cattle and butter are Preparing Other important chores. The men herd the cattle and dig wells. Sounds over the age of 15 took Their fathers' work. The young men are directed and Supervised by Their fathers. At 15, a boy builds and living in His Own Begins hut, Which Will Eventually ET Loved share with first wife. Subsequent Wives Will Be Given huts of Their Own. A girl is Often slow to a man, to see if She Will work well with the first wife. The prospective husband will visit and "give gifts to the girl's family Until the marriage IS official. THEY LACK Although May is a western scholarly grasp KM book, They Are regarded skilled social analysts. Some elders Have Traveled in Many Countries and know of the language, people, and culture of each.

The Fulakunda of Senegal are a Muslim people. Theys Strongly adheres to good morals and Virtues Pulaaku Sucha have justice, honesty, Generosity, and

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patience. The Fulakunda think of the village as a place of rules and obligations, a place for Socially acceptable behavior. The bush, On The Other Hand, Is a place of freedom, Where They can act to LUKAS Their Own Needs. The Fulakunda Hate To Feel Alone. Howeve, They tend to hide Their feelings, and the Need for Love and Companionship Is Not Expressed in public. Only Need-through songs is this Freely acknowledged.

Futa Jalon A Brief History Among the Numerous stories about the origin of the Fulani, the more recent research in anthropology and linguistics to the day after media FOLLOWING: The Fulani Originated From The Senegal river region. Theys Traveled Widely; Some Wandered east, WHERE They Were Became Muslims, and West Eventually Returned. The Futa Jalon Was Settled by the Fulani in Two waves: the first, Possibly as early as the 13th century, consisted of pagan (non-Islamic) Fulani Known As Pulli. The second Began in the 16th century and consisted of Muslim Fulani from Masina in What is now the republic of Mali. This group of Fulani Originally shared with the Futa Jalon Other ITS Gutman, nonMuslim Fulani and Jallonke. Sometime in the 17th century, holy war on pagans. Was this jihad and long bloody and featured a number of atrocities.After the Jihad Around 1725, the Muslim Fulani HAD Established a Federal Theocracy Under Islamic law, with a ruler in Central Timbo (Near present-day Mamou), Has holy city in Fougoumba, and Seven Other Provinces (diwe) with a certain Amount of Autonomy. Labe Quickly Became the Most Powerful and wealthiest of contention, ITS Expanding borders to the north and west Until It encomed Nearly a year as long as area the rest of the kingdom put together. From the outset this kingdom Was Plagued by Power Struggle. The descendants of the first Almaami (Imam / king) Quickly Split Into Two Houses, the Alfaya And The Soriya, Which Fought more or less incessantly THROUGHOUT the history of the kingdom. For a while a system of bicephalism (Dual leadership lives) Was Formalized, in Which There Were Always Two Almaamis, One from Each house, Who would trade off power Every Two Years. In practice this didn? T work out very well. The French Were Able to Establish Themselves in the surrounding areas all along Before They Made "any Headway in the Futa. They Were Able to finally capitalize on internal Power Struggle, and we Labe? S Hopes for Greater Autonomy. In 1896, at the battle of Pore-Daka, The French Defeated the last Almaami, Bocar Biro said Buubakar. The colonial Authorities Moved Quickly to Consolidate Their Power over the

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area, putting chiefs in place, dividing the Futa in order to Strengthen leaders to 'em, and little by little Diluting the Role of the Almaami. Ace Alfa Yaya Watched Loved autorité slip away, hey tried to year organizes uprising Against the colonists.He Died in a prison colony in the THEN Mauritania. The People Futa Jalon, highland region, c.30, 000 sq mi (77.700 sq km), central Guinea, W Africa. Largely a rolling grassland (average alt. C.3, 000 ft/910 m), the region IS Grazed by cattle of the Fulani. The Niger, Senegal, And Gambia There rivers rise. Futa Jalon IS Often Referred to as the head-waters of West Africa. Est aussi Called It Land of WatersFruits, Faith and Freedom. The Fulani of Futa Jalon people are a large group Located in the western African nation of Guinea, Sierra Leone, And Senegal. The majorité live in the Futa Jalon of Guinea, Year area of mountains and plateaus Consisting. Ltr semi-nomadic raise crops and livestock as well as ". The high plateaus serve as part-time pastures for Their herds. Along the plateaus of the Fouta Jalon There are grassy fields of millet and pity. Traditionally, the Livelihood of the Fula Jalon IS Primarily based on farming and shepherding. Gathering forest produce, hunting, fishing, and trading are parts of their daily Also lives. Staple crops include millet, rice, and peanuts. Cattle herds, sheep and goats Along with, are the primary livestock. The cattle are not the usual Fulani humped breed, a native Futa Jalon purpose breed That Is resistant to the disease-Carrying tsetse fly. Herding cattle IS Usually a male activity, howeve, the women milk and take care of the cattle. Women Also Care for the poultry and small livestock, "as well as cultivate the gardens. Often women carry containers of milk and cheese to sell or trade in local markets. With Their Mothers Daughters reposer Until THEY sorry. Howeve, as soon as puberty has his Reaches, ET leaves the family compound and lives alone in a nearby compound, with Usually Some cattle. This new compound Becomes the home of the wife's and His Future. The first marriage of a Man Is Usually arranged by the man's father. Children Belong To age-sets Until THEY sorry. An age-set IS Grouped At Three year Gold oven intervals, With Every child born in years giving further Belonging to That sets. The children in year age-set go to school together and May Participate in Labor community, or help someone in Their May Set with clamp-service. Each age-set Has a leader, a deputy, and a judge. Although Futa Jalon villages are Scattered, EACH Has A Village and a short central mosque. Houses Belonging To The Settled Fula Jalon are round with mud walls Typically and thatched roofs. Each year hut Has encircling verandah. The nomadic Fula Jalon lives in open, beehive-shaped huts without walls or verandahs. Each hut IS Surrounded by a cattle corral. The Main Cities in Futa Jalon are: Labe and Mamou. (Map of Guinea) For more information see www.fuuta-jalon.net

Overview of Futa Tooro The Fulani People Have Played a prominent role in West African History. As cattle pastoralists spread across THEY 2,000 miles of savanna land, from Senegambia in the west to Cameroon in the east, over the last one Thousand Years. As Muslim Revolutionaries sacrifice part of em Established Islamic

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regimes over the Last Three Centuries in oven Widely separated areas of the savanna. It Was in contention areas "That THEY adapted the Arabic script to the writing of Their language, Fulfulde, Developed and Other institutions for the dissemination of Islam in West Africa. More Than Any Other single people, the Fulani in the process Have Led whereby Islam Has Become The majorité faith of the savanna region. In Their pastoral and state-building roles, the Fulani Have Been Known by a Variety of names. In the Français-speaking world They Are Often Called Fula, a term derived from the Gambia and the Mandinka, Fulani, a term Which Comes From The Hausa language, Fellati gold, Which Comes from Kanuri in Nigeria, all use the Reflect Three of British colonial rule. In the Frenchspeaking world THEY Usually go by the expression Fulani, Which Comes from pulmonary gold up llo, the singular of Fulbe: a speaker up llo Is One of Fulfulde; this purpose Developed in French colonial Senegal. Before the Islamic revolutions of contention MOST speakers would Have Been part of a pastoral and nomadic life-style consists With The Original Meaning of the likely fullude verb, to disperse. The traditions of dispersion of the far-flung Peul converges on the area WHICH IS the subject of this anthology. Futa Toro matching to the middle valley of the Senegal River. Today the north bank lies in Mauritania, Senegal in the south bank. Futa Which Is The general name the Fulani Gave To The Areas in Which THEY Lived, while Toro Is The Oldest region with the identity in the middle valley, it lies in the western portion, around the towns of Podoor and Njuma. The linguistic evidence Also Suggests That this' may be the birthplace region, close to the gold birthplace of the Fulani people. The comparative linguistic work of Joseph Greenberg Has shown Fulfulde That Belongs To The West Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo family of languages. Within the Atlantic sub-family, It Is Closely related to the other languages of the northern group, Which include Serer, spoken by the people living Southeast of Dakar, and Wolof, the tongue of the people just to the north of the Serer and increasingly the lingua franca of all of Senegal. All Three Were Probably languages spoken in southern Mauritania and Senegal River Valley in the first millennium AD the The name of the dialect of Fulfulde spoken in Futa Toro and Used in this anthology IS Pulaar. It est aussi comme au Applied to forms of Fulfulde spoken in the Senegambian region: the speech of the pastoral Fulbe of the Ferlo Steppe, the speech of the Gutman Fulakunda of it the south bank of the Middle, Gambia, and the forms of the Gutman of Futa Jalon in the mountains of Guinea. The people of Futa Toro, as a year of various ethnic groups amalgamated attracted to the middle valley over the centuries, Have Come to Call Themselves Haalpulaar'en, Those Who speak Pulaar, Since the language is one of the Major Factors Binding Them Together. In Wolof, French and Senegalese common use, are the Haalpulaar'en Called Toucouleur, derived from Takruur, the name of the Ancient state contemporary with the Ghana Empire. Over the centuries the liaalpulaar'en Have Introduced words and concepts

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from a number of Neighboring languages. Berber and Arabic borrowing Hassaniyya Reflect the northern Mauritanian gold influence. Soninke, Mandinka and Wolof expressions Reflect the long period "of interaction in the Senegal River valley. Classical Arabic borrowing show the long association with Islam, while the French loan words Reflect Numerous s with the European merchants and colonial Authorities in the Last One Hundred Years. The Strategic Setting The migration traditions and linguistic evidence point to the Strategic Position and economy of the middle valley of the Senegal River. It just lay Beneath the Western Sahara and very close to the caravan routes Transsaharan Which Developed in the Days of the Ghana Empire and the Almoravid movement. The Mediterranean geographers locate the Muslim state of gold in Takruur close to the middle 11th century the valley in. From the 16th to the 18th centuries Futa Was Often the subject of raids by Moroccan forces Anxious to expand the influence of Their state and Acquire the Wealth in gold and slaves of the Western Sudan. The middle valley Also Occupied A Strategic Position in Relation to the coast and European penetration of the interior of West Africa. By LUKAS gold Denying access to ships ITS leaders "could turn to European Their Own goals advantage. The Fuutagkoobe, people of Futa, largely Were Successful in this endeavor from the time of the first Portuguese activities in the 16th century période Until the expansion of French Under Governor Faidherbe in the 1850s. After the mid-19th century, howeve, the Europeans Held the upper hand and the river Used As A staging area for the conquest of the savanna. Closely Correlated with Strategic Position productivité agricole. The rains of the summer months Watered the highland of the Jeeri crop, Which Futa HAD in common with comme au Zones of the savanna. The rains Also Raised the level of the river, Which in turn over Spilled ITS banks in the middle valley. After the waters receded in December, the moist floodplain gold waalo Could Be seeded with millet, sorghum and maize for a dry harvest season, just WHEN OTHERS areas "Were Entering the hungry season. This additional harvest was made Futa Breadbasket for the Surrounding Region and it drew immigrants from all directions. The French colonial concentration on the development of peanut cultivation in Senegal western Has Overshadowed the central role of Futa Toro économique. The conditions of near starvation and Drought in the last 15 years are the result of ou partly That neglect, goal THEY Also Have Brought home to Senegalese, Mauritanian and international experts the centrality of the middle valley to the Agricultural and livestock productivity of Mauritania and Senegambia. It Remains to Be seen whether the recent Investments in dams, irrigation and other projects Will Be Able to restore the Economic Importance of the river area. The Organization of Futa Tooro The settlements of the middle valley in east-west Developed third

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Corresponding to the main channel and the edges of the floodplain. One line of related villages close to the southern edge of the average flood. There the Gutman could "farm the floodplain (waalo) in the dry season and the Higher gold 'eerie land in the rainy season. Their cattle graze Theys "could, sheep and goats in the jeeri" during the wet months and in the floodplain after the waalo harvest in February. Another line of villages lay Along the southern bank of the river, the Livelihood of contention people cam from farming or fishing waalo in the main stream and Its tributaries. A similar line of villages dressed the north bank, while jeeri Some settlements Formed at Fourth and final tier, in the north Before the land Gave Way to steppe and desert. The total distance from the southernmost to the Senegalese Northernmost Mauritanian tier Was Rarely more Than 15 miles. Strong ties of kinship and Economic Complementarity bound villages in the various third together. In fact, Some villages in The Two areas waalo Were Completely abandonné When the waters rose, and the Gutman Moved in with the relative in jeeri. The larger and wealthier families HAD BOTH waalo and jeeri fields for farm and pasture. If Mauritanian Moroccan gold Invaded from the north, everyone would take refuge on the south bank. If some superior force pressed in from the south, has less frequent occurrence, the People "could move to the north Side of the River. This social organization and environment north-south Obviously reinforced ties at the Expense of east-west linkage. THROUGHOUT The Known History of Futa, Which Is To Say the Last Thousand Years, immigrants and dynasties Have Sought Rarely SUCCEEDED goal in controlling the Whole "middle valley. Theys Often Have Placed Their capitals in the central area, in order to survey the Better Which stretch 250 miles from Dembac) Kane, at the Beginning of the upper valley, to Dariana, at the lower edge of the valley, local and regional chiefs aim Usually Have Been Able to Establish Their Own relationships with Senegambian societies, Mauritanian confederations and the European ships. For the sake of convenience the east-west Expanse Be Divided Into Three can regions and nine provinces. The eastern area Has Somewhat less floodplain farming. It blends Into The steppe to the south of Bunndu and Into the densely Populated villages of Galam Gold On The Gajaaga east. In fact, Many of Its people speak in addition to the Soninke and Pulaar Sometimes in preference to; thesis Gutman Entered from the middle valley Gajaaga and Have Maintained Their Parties With That region. The central zone Is The MOST densely Populated hand. The arable lands are wide waalo, Partly Because Two tributaries link up with the river here: the Gorgol is the north side, the Duke Marigot is the south. The Suitability of area for the central government reinforced STI Also Has population. The western area contains the goal the sparsest Largest floodplain housing, in part Because Of The salt content of this part of the Senegal River Sluggish, en partie Because Of The pressure of Mauritanian and Fu16e from the north and south, and Perhaps Because Of The "substantial migration of people for the holy war of Umar Taal in the 19th century. Just as the Soninke language and culture Often this IS in the east, and Wolof origins settlement in the region are strong, And They Become Stronger As One moves Towards the west and the sduthwest. Toro province Was Often politically dominant in this region and Formed a

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counterpoise to the regimes in central and eastern Futa. These dimensions of residence, occupation and origin Formed the Social and ethnic structure of Futa. Some occupations Provided the class of identity groups. Was this true for the fishing lineages (subalbe, singular _cubballo) Who Lived in sacrifice part of The Oldest Along the river villages. It Was Also The case for the craftsmen (neenbe, sg. Neeno) Who created metal, wood, clay, leather and cloth Necessary Objects for the Whole "population. These artisan crafts Their Transmitted to Their Children-through apprenticeship systems, married Into lineages with the Saami occupation, and together constituted What are Often Called the Hereditary caste of Fuutanke, and MONSTER Senegambian Other Societies. Included In Their number are the traditional Historians and musicians Commonly Known As g riots, politique Who congregated at the short and Performed Many diplomacy and judicial functions in addition to Their public performances. Fuutanke include awlube griots (sg. ag WLO) Who constituted the main group Attached to local dynasties, the maabube (sg. maabo), Who Usually combined weaving and praise-singing, and wambaabe (sg. bambaado), Who Were Attached characteristically to pastoral Fulbe lineages. All Three are Represented in the anthology texts of this. Farming Was the occupation of MOST of the rest of the Futa) ke, and MONSTER Was Pursued by subalbe Many of the craftsman and groups. The Largest group of farmers "Were the Sebbe (sg. ceddo) year term with connotations Many Senegambian in use. In Futa it Refers to the persons of non-Fulbe origin who, "Along with the Fulani, constituted the population of the Earliest middle valley. By Their residence THEY Became Haalpulaar'en in time. In a second context are the Sebbe Contrasted with Those Who Practice Islam. This Was Certainly the original box with the Sebba, And They Have Never Learned constituted the Muslims of the Society, object in time THEY DID Become Practicing Muslims like comme au Gutman. A Third In setting the term Suggests persons Who are Attached to Some Particular leading gold short, did Officials, soldiers and enforcers. This connotation goes back to the role of Particular Sebbe Deeniyanke in the diet in the 17th and 18th centuries and to the role of the famous Sebbe Pillagers At The Wolof short of the 19th century. By Their great consommation of alcohol, They fused the Second and Third meanings of the term. The Fulani of Futa come from a pastoral tradition. Beginning Perhaps 1000 years ago in the Days of Takruur, sacrifice part of Them Became attracted to the potential of Futa agricole, Settled on the land, and the Religious Faith ADOPTED Which Has Been Traditionally Identified with sedentary life in the middle valley. Other nomadic Fulani Remained and continued to move in regular patterns transhumance, Either in the steppe north of the river and close to the Sahara, or in the Ferlo Steppe Called Between Futa and The Gambia. Theys depended upon the Citizens of the sedentary middle valley for food and water at the end of the dry season, goal THEY Sometimes Expressed That dependence by raiding "as well as by submission. Theys Formed the main source of new settlers and New Recruits Into the ruling classes of the middle valley. The Other Two classes of society are the Fuutankobhe jaawambe (sg. jaawando), a small group Who Became politique counselors as well as "farmers", and the tooro66e (sg. tooroodo), Who

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emerged in the late 18th century and constituted the principal Actors in this anthology. The Emergence of the Islamic State Most of the ruling classes of Futa Have Been sedentarized the descendants of the pastoral Fubhe. Some classes of contention Cam Under external domination by the Wolof of Jolof the Mandinka of Mali gold of the Soninke Jaara, while others Were Autonomous. In the early 16th century was the Fulbe lineage Called Deeniyanke, "under the leadership of Koli Tepelea and with the of a Variety of Sebbe From Within and Without the middle valley, Became dominant. For over a Hundred years the Deeniyai) ke managed to control not only the valley Highly segmented object has large portion of Senegambia as well. In the 17th century THEY lost the larger domain, while in the 18th They Were weakened by Moroccan and Mauritanian Growing pressure from the north, one the one hand, and Growing Has Their exacting DEMANDS Resentment from the local people, we comme au. The local Resentment crystallized in Small Communities bound together by allegiance to Islamic Piety and Learning. By the 1760s thesis groups, in the face of the atrocities of the Deeniyanke and the raids from the north, Organized Themselves Into a resistance movement. Under the leadership of Sileymaani Baal, They Launched the Islamic revolution Which in turn Gave birth to the regime Almamaagal Called the Golden Almamate (from the Arabic al-Imaam, the one Who leads in prayer). In the process Themselves THEY have constituted a new class, the tooro66e, and added to the social class That pantheon of Futa. While the term toorobbe IS Often associated with the province of Toro by giving further living Outside of Futa, It Is Derived from the verb tooraade, to beg for alms, with reference to the Koranic School Pupils Who ed Themselves I'm his way. The original label of begging Was Probably by the Applied Deeniyanke short, Who made fun of the earnest Muslims. The pejorative connotation the toorob6e Transformed Into A Proud new identity-through the revolution of the 1770s Successful and 1780. Theys Became the new ruling class and Grew Rapidly in numbers as pastoral and sedentary Fulbe, and others hastened to Sebbe avail Themselves of the new identity and New Opportunity to rule. The new regime, Under ITS Almaami gold imaam, endured for over a Hundred years, aim to control the ITS UK & middle valley Was Spent by the early 1800s. Until That Time Kaada Almaami Abdul, the first and MOST effective ruler of the new government, victorious in battle Was. He Was Able to distributive lands, assign local Imaam to-many villages, and extend influence Futanke Into the regions of western and southeastern Senegal. The defeat of forces in Kajoor Loved in 1797 Marked The Beginning Of The decline of the regime, and His Enemies by assassination in 1807 Marked the failure of the vision of the toorobhe. "During the 19th century in the Almamate Survived ITS basic institutions, it never intended the strength and zeal Recovered Of The Earlier période. It Was Officially Governed by the Almaami, phrasal from a group of eligible lineages Who Possessed the Necessary credentials of learning, goal effective control lay with the regional chiefs of the central provinces Who Possessed of considerable land, constituents and Slavic. Most chiefs of contention Served

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in the capacity of electors (jaggorde, sg. Jaggorgal) of the Almaami; Their electoral council has fixed Contained Fluctuating core and Periphery of . Two Who Were families eligible for the post of Almaami, Lih of the Jaab in Hebbiyaabe province of Wan and the Mbummba in Laaw Province, ALSO SUCCEEDED in Maintaining considerable power "during the 19th century. The Wan In Particular Used Their Growing Wealth in land and slaves to Establish a power base in Laaw, compete for the Almaami-ship, and at times turn to THREATEN the National Post Into Their Own fiefdom. The struggle of various coalitions of electors Eligible for power and constituted the Third Part of the anthology. In the middle of the 19th century Futa Was Threatened by Two Much More gravement external forces. The French Began to transform the relations of Interdependence Which THEY HAD Maintained with the middle valley Into relations of domination, particularly "under the leadership of Governor Louis Faidherbe (1854-61, 1863-5). The second intrusion cam from a native's, Umar Taal. Umar cam from Toro Province, whos Grievances Against the dominance of the central region Expressed ET DURING Loved Entire career. He left home early in the century, made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and Returned with considerable prestige and ambition FOLLOWING. In the 1850s a holy war ET Launched Against the predominantly non-Muslim Mandinka and Bambara to the east. Loved to Achieve goals ET or recruited very heavily in Senegambia, Especially in His Native Land. The recruitment process, in Which Umar Evoked The Founders of the Islamic regime, ITS Reached climax in a massive drive in 1858-9. It Had Undermining the effect of the charter and position of Almaami Even More. The French and the quatrieme Umarian intrusions constituted part of the anthology. The authority "of the regional chiefs, and particularly of the electors That, Was Compromised Much less Than That Of The Almaami. One thesis of leaders, Abdul Bookar Kan, emerged as the dominant force in the middle valley Between 1860 and 1890. He Was Able to split off the challenges of Islamic reformers, Who Evoked now the example of Umar Taal "as well as Abdul Kaada. He Effectively Challenged the authority "of the Klan who in turn lineage cam increasingly to Rely upon French . The period "of Hegemony Loved constituted the fifth part of the book. By the late 1880s It Was Obvious That the French would conquer all of Futa have parts of their subordination of Senegal and conquest of the Western and Central Sudan. The middle and upper valley Became essential staging areas for the expansion Into the regions today Known as Mali, Upper Volta and Niger. Abdul Bookar resisted the conquest, as long as possible and Effectively, goal succumbed in 1891, the Year Which Marks the End of the independence of Futa. His defeat and the French takeover constituted the last part of the anthology. TechNet Virtual Ref: http://africandl.org/futa_background.php

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The Fulvia Gorgaave Gorgaave (read as Gorgaabe) are Mostly Concentrated in Western Niger. They Live has few "hours from Niamey, The capital of country of Niger.The Niger, Standing at the crossroads the Sahara And The Sahel, Is a crucible of very different people WHERE Origins Have Lived Together for Thousands of years. Purpose of thesis EACH although people Maintains ITS Own individuality, particularly Noticeable In Their Life-styles, Their physical feature, Their customs, dress, and language. Two distinctions are howeve Remarkable: the Settled populations and the Nomads. The Settled populations are Divided Into Several groups: in the west the Songhai and Zarma, Haus in the center and Kanuri in the east. The Nomad Mainly people live in the northern part of the country and included: -The Tuareg (8%), found to Be Within A long strip of land running from the Mali frontier in the West to Goure in the East. -The Fulani (8.5%), Who, together with Their herds, are Concentrated in the Agadez, Dosso, Maine-Soroa triangle. Some Have Also Settled in the West, around Tera, Say and Niamey. Theys predominate in certain shares of Maradi, Tessaoua, Mirriah and Magaria Districts. The group include the Bororo FulaniWozaave, They Live and The Gorgaave.Sometimes Tuareg and Tubu alongside. The Gorgaave comme au and Fulani groups: Theys form the second group in nomadic Largest Niger. Like the Tuaregs, They Also Have a long-standing custom and tradition Which THEY keep very much alive. Purpose In Spite of Their great. Their concern to hairpins Specifying social structure, They Often Have come Under The Influence of Neighboring populations So Much That the Fulani in one area May Differ from Those of Another Slightly, DEPENDING ON WHERE and with Whom They Live. Ethnic unity, howeve, Is Never Destroyed. Within this major category, There Are The Bororodjis, more Usually Referred to as Bororo Fulani living in Dakoro Tanout-region, are all nomadic herders Who Spending THE ENTIRE year seeking "good grazing. Theys practice the cult of beauty and pay great attention to bodily care, expending considerable effort has one Enhancing the Attractiveness of Their faces, Adding sparkle to eyes and teeth. Theys serie amazing taste for decoration, Though It Is Mainly the Men Who Spend Most Of Their Time in SUCH pursuits. Clothing, On The Contrary, IS Relatively Scanty, Though here again the taste for decoration IS apparent in the Amount of jewelry worn earrings, intricate hairstyle Interwoven with coins, bead necklaces and multicolored charms.

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The Fulani Gurma Gurma Fulani are giving further Fulani living in the Gourma region of southeastern Burkina Faso. Ltr Fulani-Ladder (semi-nomadic herdsmen), mixing agriculture with herding. They Speak Gourmantche Fulfulde, a language from the West-Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Traditions The Livelihood of the Fulani Gurma IS dependent on the seasons. The wet season Is a time of cultivation and harvesting, with the herds and the family living together in a permanent settlement. "During the dry season, the herds are Taken to marshland or flood water for more pity and Better grazing land. The Wuro (village) Is The Center Of Gurma Fulani society. Here, the women do MOST of Their Work. Their hand Task Is The preparation of the evening meal, a millet porridge, Which can take five hours or oven to make. Theys Also gather twigs and grass for the construction of Their Homes. Milking the cattle and butter are Preparing Other important chores. As They work, the women tended to Their Children, With Their babies Often Carried on Their backs. Making clothes Is a Way to Express Himself and man can show Loved individuality and personality. Also, A Man Has Loved year obligation to dress family. Malthus, Loved a Man Will Make Own and buy cloth and clothes Handkerchiefs for Loved wives. Children do not wear clothes Many Until They Are Able to sew for Themselves. Men Who Have That sounds are at least Fifteen years old must it to 'em Their Work hairpins to a separation of the generations. The fathers act as supervisors to Their sounds, digging wells in directing em gold watering the herds. Also handle "any disputes Theys That May ARISE. Young boys Spend Much of Their Time playing in the bush, chasing birds from the fields, or keeping "the herds from getting in the fields. Young girls help Their Mothers with Their chores. Way of Life The Fulani Gurma Believe That It Is a sign of Weakness To Be controlled by fear; Therefor, They Seldom show fear in public. THEY IS Believe That Mental Illness Caused by Being so terrified That You lose control of yourself. THEY think of the village as a place of rules and obligations? A place for Socially acceptable behavior. The bush, On The Other Hand, Is a place of freedom, Where They can act to LUKAS Their Own Needs. The Fulani Gurma hate to feel alone. Theys Overcome the feeling of loneliness by talking with others. Howeve, this company IS Need for Concealed in public, have tended to hide the Fulani Their feelings. They Are Their only free to express love for others-through songs.

The Halpulaar-in Introduction (See also Futa-Toro) Although They Are Widely Dispersed Also found THROUGHOUT West-Africa, tHalpulaar ET, A sub-group of the Fulani people, live in the Mostly Senegal River Valley in Northern Senegal and Southern Mauritania.

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The origins of the Halpulaar (sometimes Called Tukolor) are hard to determine, But That They Are descendants of the Ancient Rulers of the Tekruur Empire are quite certain. Although information about There Is Insufficient Their origins, it Seems Likely That the nomadic, cattle-raising Fulani emigrated from Ethiopia, Or area adjacent to it annually, and in Their search for pastures and water for Their animals, Eventually Arrived On The northern borders of Senegal in the 10th century. It Is now well reconnu That the Fulani Spread From There to different shares of West-Africa. Early History Indicates That the Halpulaar Settled in the Senegal River valley in the 9th century, and "during the period" from the 10th to 14th century, Their strong state of Tekrur Dominated the valley. The Halpulaar Were Converted to Islam and in the mid-11th century and Participated in Establishing the Almoravid state, centered in Morocco. In the 14th cent. the Mali Westward empire expanded from the upper region of the Niger River Tekrur and Conquered. Was accepted Islam as early as 850 AD in the Kingdom of Tekruur, Is situated "Both banks of the Senegal, By the Dia Ogo dynasty. This dynasty Was the first West African people Who accepted Islam. It Was That Reason for this Arab Muslim Historians Bilâd Referred to as al-Tekruur The land of the Black Muslims. Warjabî ibn Rebates, Was the first ruler of Tekruur, In whose reign Islam Was firmly Established And The Islamic shariah ic system bewitched. This Gave a uniform law to the Muslim People of the region. By the time the Algold MurabiÏûn Almoravids Began Their attack is Tekruur CA in 1042, Islam has made deep impact HAD is the People Of That area. Al-Idrissi CA in 1511 described "the country have Tekruur secure, peaceful and quiet. The capital town of Tekruur Which Was Also Called Tekruur HAD Become an important center of commerce Between North Africa and West Africa. The Society Traditionally sedentary farmers "in a close-knit society, thesis Speakers of Pula, Gold Haalpular'en Halpulaar like to have the call Themselves, Were Possibly the first West Africans to convert to Islam in the 11th Century. It Isthrough and Halpulaar Warriors holy men That comme au Major Population Groups in Senegal and Elsewhere in West Africa Were Converted to the Islamic faith. The Halpulaar Inhabit the FOLLOWING areas: Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Gambia and Some in Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Burkina Faso and Other West African Countries "as well as numbers of expatriates in Europe, The MiddleEast and America. The Futa Toro, the Largest area of settlement for the modern day celebrities Halpulaar Is in the northern St. Louis province of Senegal, In the major geopolitical region have reconnu Officially the Futa Toro, encoming a wide area of northern Senegal and southern Mauritania. This is the birth place of Generally Agreed Fulani people who in the 11th Century AD, started "Migrating east in search of Better pastures. Theys migrated as far east as Sudan and Eritrea. In the process, THEY Launched Jihad in Many Parts of West Africa Including Sokoto in present day Nigeria. The Fulani-Tooroove of Nigeria Have retain the original sacrifice part of names and traditions of Their forbearers Futa Toro. The Futa Toro IS Divided Into two areas ", the one in the west Called Toro in

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the east and one Called the Futa. Staying in contention Halpulaar Two areas "are respectively Called Tooroodo (singular) / Tooroove (plural) in the Western region, and Fuutanke (singular) / Fuutankoobe (plural) in the Eastern region of the Futa Toro. The majorité Halpulaar of the people in the Senegal River Valley. Theys occupy a 350km long narrow Belt of country (approx. 20km wide) in the Futa region, BETWEEN Fanaye, On The East of Dagana Senegal River, And North West of Debankani Bakel. This belt of land right onto Stretches of the Border Mali and Senegal in the East. Since They Are Minorities in the Countries THEY lies in the tendency to speak other languages. Second / trade languages: In In In In In

Mauritania: French, Wolof gold Hassaniaya. Senegal: Wolof, and gold Glossary. Mali: Bambara and French. Nigeria: Hausa, and Francais. Gambia: Français, Wolof and French.

The Halpulaar Have Developed strong alphabetization programs in Their Own Language. There are various current literacy programs Among the Pulaarophone Including; ARED (Associates in Research and Development Inc.,) and GIPLIN (Group for the Promotion of Books in National Languages). Traditional living: Food: The favorite dish fish and rice IS, Called OMAFRA e Lizzie. This Is Often Served with Some pieces of vegetable. The staple in the Futa Used To Be a millet couscous meal based dish. The dish That Is To Be regarded the traditional dish of the Halpulaar, IS Couscous Served with a souse made from the green leaves of the peanut plant or the sweet-potato plant. This Is Called Lacciri e haako. (See Cooking) Shelter: Traditionally the Halpulaar Lived in thatched mud Dwellings, Grouped together in villages Governed by year Arzo. The villages are very neat and tidy Usually. In Larger towns thatched roofs are Replaced by tin / sink roofs. Generally buildings are of mud bricks are plastered over with That mud or cement. Has the advantage Cement That It Does not Have to Be redone Every year like the mud Plastering. More and more people are building with cement bricks adopter INSTEAD of the traditional mud bricks. Clothing: The style of dress has been "largely Influenced by Arabic / Muslim tradition, drank some practicality Also Reflect Regarding the climate. During, special occasions people dress up in brightly colored clothes with richly embroidered in gold thread. Women and men alike Their Best Will Also wear jewelry, gold chains Mostly, rings, earrings and bangles, we SUCH opportunities. Generally men wear long flowing wide mantels Known As 3 piece or 2 piece Bubus, With Islamic-style turbans or Fez skullcaps. Generally women wear long flowing dresses large, Also Called Bubus, with wrap-around skirts Beneath, and scarves as head-dress (worn in turban style.) Another form of dress Both worn by men and women Is a basic drop-over long poncho style outfit made from one drop of material falls to the knee That or the ankles.

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Society and Culture: The main forms of occupation are: Herders, Farmers, Tradesmen, Fisherman, Entertainer and Craftsmen. Authority and Power Is in the hands of the elders and the men in general. Transitory and Spiritual power and authority "are in the hands of the upper cast, the Tooroove. High status IS Attached to hip in a noble lineage or a prosperous family. The organization of the society revolve around Halpulaar Two hand forces, the clan, and the caste system. Of argument, the Largest form of association and relationship Is The clan subdivided Into lineage groups - has lots of extended family. Always Halpulaar Themselves Around a group leader or chief (of a suburb, town, region, etc..) The Halpulaar hairpins and follow a patriarchal social structure. Community Life Is Highly Stratified Into a hierarchy of 12 casts, Grouped Into Social classes torroove, rimva, subálveas, sevve, jawave, and nyenyve.. The first class included the Highest and Chiefs and Religious leaders. Most are Halpulaar cette Tooroove class. The value of An IS Determined by individual "and not casting Loved Loved by the rich, fame or Any Other position in life. Relationships are of primary importance for social purposes is the connections are horizontal Formed Within a social class and weddings by example, are never contracted Traditionally across class lines.In the caste system, the castes are Characterized by Hereditary, endogamy and / or Professional Specialization. Theys constituted groups and closed hairpins Relationships with One Another was hierarchical Basis. Social relations, issues of domination and Especially subordination are defined \ Essentially by the caste people to Which Belong. The social structure IS Highly Stratified am and is Primarily based on male lineage groups, Which are Usually Scattered Among Several villages. Each clan embraces All That Their descent to trace a common ancestry. Within the clan owe One Another Social Obligations and Responsibilities. of a clan group Usually occupy the Saami area and defends Traditionally Their Against Other clans area. Over the centuries the clans Acquired a measure of autonomy ", Which Was particularly Pronounced" during the time of the empire, and the Futa Toro Became a loose federation of groups SUCH. Under the influence of Islam gradually changed from the Halpulaar matrilineal to Paternally structured society. An example of this Is That the wife would come to live at the Village of Her father-in-law. The drawings can be ed ménage Included father, historical sounds and grandchildren, Their Wives, children and more remote kin Sometimes. Greetings Greeting Is One Of The MOST important social conventions. Greetings are coming across appropriée When local people, Especially in the bush, and the visitor should "make the effort to learn thesis sentences. Handshaking is meeting, Regardless Of over how many times a day one meets the person, IS normal. When visiting a village It Is polite to call upon the village hean to explain gold Schoolteacher That You Want to Spend the Night There gold visit the area. Weddings: The Halpulaar Strictly observe the Islamic categories of persons in

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marriage and prohibée marriage equality règlements. Saddle price, Including the Obligatory gifts of animals, gold nafore, Goes to the couple to GUARANTEE the Stability of the union. Part of the nafore IS Turned over to the flange as a dowry, if she intended Seeks Divorce, the nafore IS restored to the husband. Halpulaar do not look the levirate as Obligatory. Customarily, Halpulaar prefer to marry in Shawwal, the month the Prophet Muhammad That married Aisha. Fridays are reserved for virgins, while Mondays are for divorcees and widows. The general term for marriage IS dewgl ('ve mbazii dewgal). The verb form to get married IS ResD, Drank the process of getting married IS Divided Into Several steps. The initial step Called the IS xamol, From the verb xamde Meaning to ask for a woman's hand in marriage. At this stage the man's family Approaches the family of the woman to have the Chat Desired marriage. The golden couple Involved Apr May Have not made the choice, the choice gold inseparable UK Themselves. In Either case, the families must "give consents Because Their wedding arrangements are Carried Out Between families, and are regarded family affairs. The Next Step Involves the older male of Both families Who Will Go To The Mosque to tie the marriages. This step IS Called the Kumal, From the verb humde meaning "to tie". The symbol of this Step Is The sharing of kola nut (peccugol goro) WHICH IS Provided by the man's family. Once this step has been "Taken regarded the couple IS married, drank It Still May Be Several months, or long-lived event, Before the woman moves Actually Into Her Husband compound. This last step Known as the kuurtagol, The moving of the wife to The Husband Compound ya une expensive step, "celebrated with jubilation and Protracted festivities. While the preparations for this final step are Being Made, the wife continues to live May At Her parent's compound, with gold Elsewhere Other family . Art forms: Poetry Is very important am and is Incorporated in the traditional language use Among the older generation. Dance Also Has a prominent place in social interaction Halpulaar. Traditional dance varies from region to region, But Is Generally Accompanied by traditional drumming. Most celebrations for Incorporate Some of dancing. The younger generation in the true age FOLLOWING cette regularly arrange evenings of dance, WHERE the music style is Dominated by American, Caribbean,, Jazz and modern African-style music. Storytelling is very important est aussi art and communication form. Storytellers are Paid for Their Services and Performance SUCH diverse as the recounting stories of history and folklore, to the praise-singing Gold dignitaries of events. Storytellers are a must at a wedding feast, and the status DEPENDING ON Of A Might Be Hired Many family for the occasion. (Also See Videos) The hand forms of recreation by visiting Consist of socializing and chatting around the traditional tea, dancing and storytelling. In recent times it Has Become popular to arrange social evenings of Debate over tea, "as well as socio-cultural traditions and folklore evenings WHERE IS recounted and discussed. The Most Important Sport in the region are the West African Football and wrestling. This form of hand-to-hand combat differs from Greco-Roman wrestling, kicking and punching me manager IS Allowed. The Loser Is The first one to hit the ground or Have Both feet of the ground. There Are Other traditional sports as well.

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Religion Mauritania apart, Gambia, Mali and Senegal, Secular states are with freedom of religion. Islam Has grown over the past 50 years and Islam Has INcreased to 95. Moslems in Senegal are adherents to Sunni Islam, goal over 85% of Muslims are Muslim of Sufi brotherhoods The Three - the Mouride, Tidjane, and Qadiri - who are in very Influential Political and Economic Life in Senegal. The Halpulaar are very Proud of Their Islamic heritage - of Being the first West African group to embrace Islam. Generally Theys Belong to the strict Tijaniya School. Traditional Beliefs in the Nature of Man and His destiny after death play significantly role in the Halpulaar outlook on life. The impersonal life force, fittaandu, Is upon death Absorbed Into deity, while the Shadow Soul, mbeelu, Is The personal spirit, subject to reward in heaven or punishment in hell. Two spirits thesis, howeve, Is Not as Clear Might have expected ", and They Are Often confused. Sernaave (sing. Čierno) Are the spiritual authority "Marabouts centers. Ltr the Religious leaders and teachers. It Is Through These Men That Satan controls the lives of the people. From the cradle to the grave, a person lives "under the shadow of the Marabout. Whether for giving a name at birth, for education, for celebrating a wedding, for burial, for healing or cursing, the Marabout IS everpresent. Halpulaar Differentiate Among Their LUKAS clergyman to whether THEY lead prayer, teach, specialize in the study and interpretation of the canon law, a golden head Mosk. The common word for a cleric IS midibbo, The Teacher Is The Čierno, While the jurist and the High Priest Is The Fojo. The head Mosk, Often Also The chief istrative officer in a Village, IS Called Almami. The Brotherhoods: In the past the Halpulaar Have Been associated with various Sufi tariqas (Brotherhoods). Early in the 19th century the Shadhiliya Among Them Was Introduced by a Fulani cleric, Ali As-Sufi, the purpose THEY ADOPTED ultimately Tijaniya upon the Rise of Al-Hajj Umar. Adapted from: 1) www.wagetaway.org 2) "Intrduction to Pulaar" by Sonja F. Diallo

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The Hausa-Fulani of Nigeria This section addresses Mainly the Fulani of Nigeria. Nigeria is Africa's Most Which Populous Country, IS Composed of more Than 300 ethnic groups, Divided Into Many subgroup of considerable social importance and politique. Most important ethnolinguistic categories: Hausa and Fulani in north, Yoruba in southwest, and Igbo in Southeast, all Internally subdivided. Next major groups: Kanuri, Ibibio, Tiv, Ijaw and. Languages in Nigeria are Estimated at more Than 350 with Many dialects. The Most importantare: Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo and. Français Is The Official Language Used in government, large-scale business, mass media, and education Beyond primary school. Several other languages Also reconnu for Primary Education. The FOLLOWING are the MOST Populous and politically Influential: Hausa and Fulani 29%, Yoruba 21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%, Ijaw 10%, Kanuri 4%, Ibibio 3.5%, Tiv 2.5%. The religions in Nigeria are as Follows: Muslim 50%, Christian 40%, Indigenous Beliefs 10%. The Hausa-Fulani are a great model of An ethnic group merger, as They Are Actually Made up of Two groups, not Called Surprisingly the Ha and the Fulani. The Hausa are Themselves a merger, a collection of West-African Peoples That Were assimilated, long ago, Into the population inhabiting What is now regarded Hausaland. Once THEY THEY Arrived in Hausaland Became Known for setting up seven small states centered around Birni, Or walled cities. In the Hausa states thesis Developed Techniques of efficient government, has very carefully Organized Including Tax System and Judiciary A highly Learned, Which Gave Them a reputation of Integrity and istering a flexible loan in Islamic law. The Fulani are Muslims Also, and, like the Hausa. Fulvia pastoralists, in Known Nigeria have Fulani, Hausa Began to enter the country in the thirteenth century, and by the Fifteenth Century They Were Tending cattle, sheep, and goats in Borno as well. The Fulani from the cam Senegal River valley, Their Ancestors WHERE HAD Developed a method of livestock management based on transhumance and Specialization. The movement of cattle Along north / south corridors in pursuit of grazing and water Climatic Followed the pattern of the rainy and dry seasons. Gradually, the pastoralists Moved Eastward, Into the first centers of the Mali and Songhai Eventually empires and Into Hausaland and Borno. Some Fulvia Converted to Islam in the Senegal region as early as the Eleventh century, and one group of Muslim Fulani Settled in the Cities and mingled with the Freely Hausa, from Whom Became THEY Racially indistinguishable. A turning point in Nigerian history in 1804 When a cam Fulani preacher, Othman dan Fodio Began a holy war in the result fromthis That subjugation of the old Hausa city states of northern Nigeria. Having Conquered the Hausa, Fulani, the language and Their ADOPTED merged with Their ruling classes to create Ha-Fulani ethnic group "under the rule of What Was the Sokoto Caliphate now. Theys Have intermarried with the Hausa, and Have Mostly ADOPTED "latter's customs and language, although Some Fulani Decided to stay clean Retaining by a nomadic life. The Hausa-Fulani ruling coalition IS Still dominant in northern Nigeria. This

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coalition HAD ITS beginnings Much Earlier, Because The Fulani Governed by Simply The Highest Hereditary Assuming positions in the well-organized system Hausa politique. Many of the Fulani ruling Culturally and linguistically Have Become Hausa. At the top of the hierarchy politique Organized Into the Fulani are states, or emirates, Ruled by the emir. Emirs are selected from the ruling lineages by a council of cleric (Mallam). After British intervention, the selection of year emir Had To Be Approved by the British government. Emirs Have the ultimate power in istrative and judicial functions of the state, and delegate sponsored funds to carry out thesis Officials functions. Emirs HAD Somewhat more power in the Past Than They Do today. The Purely Fulani-speaking groups are made up of the Muslim population of Northern Nigeria and the adjacent areas "of Niger, Which Have Been Traditionally Organized Into wide Centralized states. Fulani of Nigeria speak a number of dialects, They Can Be Grouped Into oven basic language groups: Adamawa (On the east of Nigeria, Extending Into Cameroon ) Sokoto (Most of Whom speak Hausa, in the northern part of Nigeria, Extending Into Niger), Sokoto (was ounce Staff geo-political state Fulvia, a famous center for Pullo (singular for Fulvia) Usman dan Fodio ) Now the Fulvia of the Sokoto area Mostly speak Hausa Borgu: We Nageria western border, spilling over from Benin and Togo. Central North Nigerian Fulani, With population figures estimate of 12-15 million, Have Many names and variations in speech, goal Basically the KanoKatsina Mbororo Western Fulani, Bauchi Fulani Toroove, etc.. Closely related dialects speak to Each Other, readily Understood By Other Fulani People of the region. The modern Fulani of Nigeria are Concentrated Mainly in the provinces of Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, and Zaria.

The Fulani Jelgoove The Jelgoove Fulani Goldfulva Jelgoove of Northern Burkina Faso are one expression of the Rich Variety in livelihoods Among the Fulani. In the late Seventeenth and early Eighteenth Centuries THEY migrated from the Boni region in Mali What is now northern Into Burkina Faso with "substantial herds form Belonging to Their Masters, the Jalluve. Theys Quickly made alliances with local chiefs in order to Protect Themselves and Their herds from Jalluve retribution. In just the Separate Two Generations of chiefdoms Djibo and Baraboulle Were Established and-through a series of isolated Campaigns and battles, the Jelgoove Established Themselves as masters of the region. Later on, A Third chiefdom Was Established at Tongomayel. A King Ruled Kaaananke gold EACH chiefdom gold region. At a village level, accession to the position of Jooro Determined by IS genealogical Seniority. In simple , the jooro power order is in. Does not Have Power. Drake gold adviser arbitre year with no real coercive power EXCEPT Perhaps Loved-through charisma. Most Jelgoove thesis days are agro-pastoralists. Seasonal decision-making balanced Must Be Between millet cropping year transhumance herding. Some Jelgoove Still are nomadic in the sense That THEY Rely Entirely on Their

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Livelihood security for animals and manage giving further using various patterns of mobility. These are Jelgove Mainly large herd owners Who Have migrated to the wetter rangelands in the south-west and south east of Burkina Faso Some gold in the north-east of Burkina Faso Who Into travel Mali and / Gold Niger. In The Most Fulbhe Soum province of Burkina Faso Either are sedentary or nomadic pastoralists one Who Their herds move over short distances in a north-south pattern. Theys move north at the beginning of the rains, as soon as surface water Allows to take advantage of shepherds bush pastures Towards the Malian border, And Also escape with farmers "Conflicts over crop damage. Theys move back south in the dry season to Their village and / or permanent water points. At first observation, Fulvia Jelgoove Seems very Secular Society. Surrounding SUCH unlikable tribes have the Mossi Kurumba and Dogon THEY Have No Systematic cosmology nor Do They Have "any plastic or graphic arts, except the geometric patterns are Being leather work and utensils ménage (Riesman 1977:39). Similarly, It Is hard to find "any traditional rituals Fulvia Regarding curing sickness, warding off death, Increasing fertility, and one (Riesman 1975:40). The Jelgove prononcer to Rely on Neighboring tribes (particularly the Mossi and Kurumba), Itinerant Fulbhe Wodaave and Hausa merchants from Niger for safaara gold Medicine and occult rituals. Feign ignorance Islamic Fulbhe Generally matters in contention. Some Islamic clergyman regarded less erudite howeve do dabble in folk medicine and sell charms as a supplementary source of income options. The Fulbhe Jelgoove state quite categorically That Their religion (Kulol Allah, Literally, fear of Allah) IS Islam, yet MOST hairpins A Rather casual adherence to STI tenets, Except For That Is The Islamic clergyman caste or guild, the Moodibaave. The Jelgoove Attached to Their are very Pulaaku Which Is The Basis of Their extreme pride gold dimmaanku / dimmaaku (see Pulaaka ). Overview of Burkina Faso Most of the People of Burkina Faso Belong to one of Two Hand cultural groups, the Voltaic and the Mande. The Voltaic group includes the Mossi, the Bobo, the Gurunsi, and the Lobi peoples. The Mossi make up about half of the country's population. For over 800 years, They Have Had a kingdom with a central government headed by the Moro Naba (Mossi chief). A Moro Naba Still Holds short in Ouagadougou, the main city Mossi. Most of the Mossi are farmers "Who live in the central and eastern share of Burkina Faso. The family lives in Typical Mossi has Yiri, a group of mud-brick houses Surrounding a small short. The families keep sheep and goats in the short. The Bobo, the Gurunsi, and the Lobi EACH make up less Than 10 Percent of the population. The Bobo live in the southwest around Bobo Dioulasso. THEY live in large villages Where They build houses with clay castlelike brick walls and straw roofs. The Gurunsi, Who live around Koudougou, HAVE ADOPTED modern exchange more readily Than the Mossi have. The Lobi live in the Gaoua region. THEY Have Long Been good hunters and farmers ", work as intended now THEY Migrant Laborers in and around the cities. The Mande group includes the Boussance, Marka, Samo, and Senufo peoples. These are branches of the Mande peoples groups living in Neighboring Mali,

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Guinea, and northern Cote d'Ivoire. Burkina Faso Also Has Several Hundred Thousand Fulani and Tuareg nomads. These people travel grazing Between Areas in the northern part of Burkina Faso with Their goats, sheep, and Other livestock.

Kano-Katsina KANO The Hausa state of Kano Was Founded in the 10th century. It Was Conquered by the Fulani in 1807, Becoming a dependency of Sokoto. Was Imposed British rule in 1903. Emirs House of Ibrahim Dabo Ruled Since 1819 1855 - 1883 Ibrahim Abdullahi dan Dabo "Abdu Sarkin Yanka" 1 ... - 1883 1883 - 1893 Muhamman Bello Ibrahim dan Dabo, brother ... 1 - 1893 1893 - 1895 Muhamman Bello Tukur dan Muhamman, its 1 ... - 1895 1895 - 1903 Aliyu "Abu" dan Abdullahi, Emir of the Dan Abdullahi Ibrahim (s.a.), part of Ruled Since the country in 1894, Expelled by the British 18 .. - 1926 1903 - 1919 Muhammadu Abbas dan Abdullahi, brother 18 .. - 1919 1919 - 1926 Uthman dan Abdullahi, brother 18 .. - 1926 1926 - 1953 Bayaro Abdullahi dan Muhammadu Abbas, of the Emir Muhammadu Abbas (as) 1883-1953 Katsina The state of Katsina Hausa Was Founded in the 11th century and Was Conquered by the Fulani in 1806, Becoming a dependency of Sokoto. Was Imposed British rule in 1903. Emirs House of Umaru Dallaji

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1870 - 1882 Ibrahim dan Bello Muhamman 1 ... - 1882 1882 - 1887 Umaru Musa dan, of the Emir Umaru Dallaji (1 ... - 1835 r. 1806-1835) 1 ... - 1887 1887 - 1905 Ibrahim dan Abubakar, Emir of Ibrahim's (sa), deposed 1905 - 1906 Yero dan Musa, the Emir of Musa (as), deposed House of Gidado 1906 - 1944 Muhammad dan Dikko Gidado 1865 - 1944 1944 - 1981 Muhammad Usman dan Nagogo Dikko its 1905 - 1981 The Hausa-Fulani Dominion It thrived Bornu's west the spectacular Hausa cultures, Which by the 7th century AD Were Already smelting iron ore. Cette politique militaire power and Motions What is this in Nigeria's northwestern and north central area. The Origin of Crop Remains a Mystery thesis to Western Historian. Purpose Local lore Hold That Bayajida has traveler from the Middle East, married the queen of Daura and HAD seven sounds. Each IS his Believed To Have Founded one of the seven Hausa kingdoms: Kano, Rano, Katsina, Zazzau (Zaria), Gobir, Kebbi, and Auyo. The seven walled city-states have strong economies Developed ed by intensive farming, cattle rearing, music, Soldier and craftsmanship. For Each of the seven states, annually élu monarch Ruled over a network of feudal lords by the 14th century Who Converted to Islam HAD. A Greater Perhaps, if more Subtle, Threat to the Hausa kingdoms Was The Fulani pastoralists. Their Migration Into the Hausa-dominated savanna over Many Centuries Presented a purpose Subtle Significant Threat to the Hausa states. In 1804 Fulani scholar, Usman dan Fodio, Has Declared jihad (holy war) Against the Hausa states, whos Rulers ET upbraided for Allowing Islamic practices to deteriorate. Armed Fulani warriors are evangelists and horseback, with the blessing of Usman dan Fodio and, fired by Religious and Political fervor, overthrew the Ha and Conquered areas "Beyond Hausaland, Including Adamawa to the east and Nupe and Ilorin to the south. After the war, a loose federation of 30 emirates emerged, recognizing the supremacy EACH of the Sultan of Sokoto, Located in What is now the state of Sokoto on Nigeria's northwestern flanks. The Sultan of Sokoto Was first Usman dan Fodio. After Usman Died in 1817, Loved her, Muhammad Bello, Took Loved up. With STI militarily and Economic Might and savvy, the Sokoto Caliphate Dominated the region THROUGHOUT the 19th century The Hausa Consist of the Hausa-speaking, Muslim population of Northern Nigeria and adjacent areas "of the Niger, Which Have Been Traditionally

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Organized Into wide Centralized states. Originally, the name Hausa Referred to only the language of the people of this area Habe, Who Were Organized Into Closely related goal seven independent states Called Biram, Daura, Kano, Katsina, Gobir Rano and gold Zazzau Zaria. Early in the Nineteenth Century, the states Habe Were Conquered by the Fulbe (Fulani, Peul), Waging a Jihad Muslim gold holy war "under the leadership of Uthman dan Fodio. The Sokoto Caliphate Peul Established the Golden Empire, Which ultimately Incorporated Some 15 states Called emirates, EACH headed by a ruling dynasty of Fulani origin. The deposed Habe Dynasties of Zaria and Katsina states set up new at Abuja and Maradi and A Third Habe Was Established state has Argunga. In thesis states, Habe customs largely Unchanged Survived by Fulani influence. The Fulani rulers of the Hausa states progressively ADOPTED the sedentary life, language, customs and Other of the subject population Habe, ou partlythrough intermarriage. They Are Called the Golden Town Settled Fulani to Distinguish Them From The Bush nomadic Fulani gold. Malthus the Hausa term Normally Is Now Used to Refer to Both the original and the Settled Population Habe, acculturated Fulani ruling aristocracy. Also it extends to people of different ethnic origins, have SUCH Tuareg gold Kanuri Where They Have the Hausa language ADOPTED and culture. Most Hausa are Muslim farmers "part-time and part-time occupational specialists, while the pagan Hausa are for the full-time MOST share subsistence agriculturalists. Agriculture IS Scheduled Around The May-October rainy season. Grain crops of millet, maize, Guinea corn, and rice supply the bulk of the diet. A wide range of additional crops, SUCH as peanuts, cowpeas, sweet potatoes, cotton, sugarcane, bamboo, tobacco, cassava, root crops and Other Both are grown for Household Consumption and as cash crops. Uncultivated plants are sources of fuel have Exploited, thatch, food, and fiber. Livestock Raising Is Another important feature of economic activities, and the Hausa inventory of domestic animals includes horses, donkeys, goats, sheep, and poultry. A few "cattle are Raised, aim for the MOST part the Hausa cattle and cattle products get-through trade with the pastoral Fulbe. Except at the elite Gold Levels Where There is Sufficient market demand, occupational specialties are Pursued were part-time Basis in Conjunction with subsistence agriculture. Exchange of Goods and Services Takes place Within a cash economy. A system of markets and traders are links together the units of state and the state to Outside groups. Small rural villages Have periodic markets, while larger settlements Have daily markets. At the top of the hierarchy Is a central market, Located in the istrative center of the state. A series of market Officials Oversee the activities and Settlements Within The marketplace disputes. At the top of the hierarchy politique Organized Into the Hausa are states, or emirates, Ruled by the emir. Emirs are selected from the ruling lineages by a council of cleric (Mallam). After British intervention, the selection of year emir

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Had To Be Approved by the British government. Emirs Have the ultimate power in istrative and judicial functions of the state, and delegate sponsored funds to carry out thesis Officials functions. Emirs HAD Somewhat more power in the Past Than They Do today, howeve, When THEY Appointed stronghold heads and more officials. The British, by a series of Department Interposing to handle state affairs, spread out sacrifice part of the Powers That HAD Been formerly reserved to the emir. At present, Many of the important decisions are made by the emir in Conjunction with senior department heads Chooses Whom ET. The emir, the top state bureaucrats, The Two Priests state, and the central market are all Located in a capital city. The Islamic religion Was Introduced Among the Hausa as early as the 1500s, goal ITS predominance Was Not Fully Established Until the Fulani-led jihad (holy war) of the Early Nineteenth Century. Pilgrimages, daily prayer, mosque attendance at ceremonies, adherence to Islamic law, and the stress they are learning Quaranic Major elements of the Islamic faith. Mallam (men of learning Quaranic) teach the faith and Have Relatively high status in Haus Society. The Mallam are Ranked by degree of learning and status, with giving further at the top of the hierarchy serving in state-level offices That Religious and Secular combines Both Powers. Individual participation in Islam IS variable, the degree of adherence to Islamic practices Greater Among Those Being of Wealth and Power Among the Poorer Than groups.

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History of Kanem-Borno The Kanem Empire Originated in the ninth century AD to the Northeast of Lake Chad. It Was Formed from a confederation of nomadic peoples Who spoke languages of the Teda-Daza (Tubu) group. One theory, based on early Arabic sources, Suggests That the dominance of the Zaghawa people bound the confederation together. Local oral traditions omit Aim the Zaghawa and has progressively closed INSTEAD to legendary Arab, Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan - Some Believed to Have Been by a Yemeni - who Assumed leadership of the clan and Magoumi Sayfawa Began the dynastic lineage. Historians Agree That the leaders of the new state of the Ancestors Were Kanembu people. The leaders ADOPTED the title in May, gold king, and Their subjects Them Regarded as divine. One Factor That Influenced the formation of states in Chad Was The penetration of Islam "during the Tenth Century. Migrating from the Arabs north and east Brought the new religion. Toward the end of the Eleventh century, the king Sayfawa, May breathed in Converted to Islam. (Some Historians Believe That It Was Rather Than Sayf ibn Humai Dhi Yazan Sayfawa Who Established the lineage as the ruling dynasty of Kanem.) Offered Islamic rulers Sayfawa the advantages of the new ideas from Arabia and the Mediterranean world, as well as "Literacy in istration . Purpose Many people resisted the new religion in Favor of Traditional Beliefs and practices. Converted Humai When, for example, It Is Believed That the Zaghawa broke from the empire and Moved east. This pattern of conflict and compromise with Islam underinsured motorist Repeatedly in Chadian history. Prior to the twelfth century, the nomadic confederation expanded Sayfawa Southward Into Kanem (the word for "south" in the Teda language). By the thirteenth century, Kanem's rule expanded. At the time Sami, the people Kanembu Became Established more sedentary and has a capital Njima, Northeast of Lake Chad. Even Though the Kanembu Were Becoming more sedentary, Kanem's rulers continued to travel frequently to remind THROUGHOUT the kingdom herders and farmers "the de fait's Power and to allow 'em to Demonstrate Their allegiance by Paying Tribute. Kanem's expansion Peaked and energetic "during the long reign of May Dabbalemi dunams (ca. 1221-1259). Initiated Dabbalemi diplomacy exchange with sultans in North Africa and arranged for the establishment Apparently of a special hostel in Cairo to Facilitate Pilgrimage to Mecca. During, Dabbalemi's reign, the Fezzan region (in present-day Libya) Fell Under Kanem's authority "and the empire's influence extended Westward to Kano to Wadai Eastward, Southward and to the Adamawa grasslands (in present-day Cameroon). Portraying thesis boundaries maps we can Be Misleading, howeve, Because The degree of control extended in ever-weakening gradations from the core of the empire around Njima to remote peripheries, from Which allegiance and tribute Were Usually only symbolic. Moreover, cartographic lines are static and misrepresent the mobility inherent in Nomadism and migration, Which Were common. The loyalty of peoples and Their Leaders in Governance Was more important Than the physical control of territory. Dabbalemi devised a system to reward militaire commanders with authority

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"over the people THEY Conquered. This system, howeve, Tempted militaire officers to Their Positions to Their sound, transforming the office from Malthus based on one Achievement and loyalty to the one based on May Into Hereditary Nobility. Dabbalemi Was Able to suppress this Tendency, goal after death Loved, Loved sound disagreement Among the weakened Sayfawa Dynasty. Dynastic feuds degenerated Into civil war, and Kanem's outlying peoples soon ceased Paying tribute. By the end of the Fourteenth Century, internal and external attacks Struggles HAD torn Kanem apart. Between 1376 and 1400, but six Reigned, goal Bulala invaders (from the area around Lake Fitri to the east) Five of Them Killed. This proliferation of but in result fromthis Claimants to the throne Numerous and led to a series of internecine wars. Finally, around 1396 the Bulala Forced to abandon May Umar Idrismi Njima Kanembu and move the people to Borno on the western edge of Lake Chad. Over time, the intermarriage of the Kanembu and Borno peoples created a new people and language, the Kanuri. Purpose Even In Borno, the Dynasty's troubles Sayfawa PERSISTED. "During the first three-quarters of the Fifteenth Century, for example, fifteen Occupied but the throne. Then, around May 1472 Ali Dunamami Loved Defeated rivals and Began the consolidation of Borno. He built a fortified capital at Ngazargamu, to the west of Lake Chad (in present-day Niger), the first permanent home was in May Sayfawa HAD Enjoyed in a Century. So Successful That Was The Sayfawa rejuvenation by the Early Sixteenth Century and the Bulala Were Defeated Njima retaken. The empire's leaders, howeve, Has Remained Ngazargamu Because ITS agriculturally productive lands Were more and Better suited to the raising of cattle. Kanem-Borno Peaked "during the Reign of the Outstanding statesman May Idris Aluma (ca. 1571-1603). Aluma (also spelled Alooma) IS ed for Loved militaires skills, istrative Reforms, and Islamic Piety. His opponents hand Were the Hausa to the west, the Tuareg and Tubu to the north, and the Bulala to the east. One epic poem extol Loved victories in 330 wars and more Than 1.000 battles. His innovations included the emploi of fixed militaire camps (with walls); permanent seats and "scorched earth" tactics, WHERE Solidere 'everything burned in Their path; armored horses and riders, and the Use of Berber camelry, Kotoko Boatmen, and iron-Helmeted Trained by Turkish Musketeers militaire advisers. His active diplomacy featured relations with Tripoli, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire, Which feels a 200member ambassadorial party across the desert to Aluma's court at Ngazargamu. Aluma Also signé What Was Probably the first Plantagenet treaty or cease-fire in Chadian history-. (Like Many cease-fires-Negotiated in the 1970s and 1980s, It Was promptly broken.) Aluma Introduced a number of legal and istrative Reforms Based on Religious Beliefs and Loved Islamic law (Sharia). He sponsored the construction of mosques and Numerous made a pilgrimage to Mecca, Where He arranged for the establishment of a hostel to Be Used by pilgrims from Loved empire. As With Other Dynamic Politicians, Aluma's reformist goals led Him to seek competent and honest advisers and allies, and frequently relied on slaves ET Who HAD Been Educated in noble homes. Aluma regularly Sought advice from a council Composed of heads of the MOST important clans. He required

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major politique figures to live at the short, and ET-through alliances reinforced politique appropriée marriages (Aluma Himself Was the son of a Kanuri father and a mother Bulala). Kanem-Borno Under Aluma Was Wealthy and strong. Government cam back from tribute (or booty, if the recalcitrant people Had To Be Conquered) of dirty Slav, duties and participation in one trans-Saharan trade. Unlikable West Africa, the Chadian region Did Not Have gold. Still, it was central to one of the MOST convenient trans-Saharan routes. Between Lake Chad and Fezzan lay a sequence of well-spaced wells and oases, and from Fezzan There Were easy connections to North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Many products Were feels north, Including natron (sodium carbonate), cotton, kola nuts, ivory, ostrich feathers, perfume, wax, and hides, the MOST important goal of all Slavic Were. Imports included salt, horses, silks, glass, musket, and copper. Aluma Took A Keen Interest in Trade and Other Matters économique. Drake credited with HAVING the roads cleared, Deg Better boats for Lake Chad, Introducing standard units of measure for grain, and moving farmers "Into new lands. In addition, ET Improved security and the ease of transit-through the empire with the goal of making it so safe That "lone woman clad in gold Might walk with none to fear God intended." The istrative Reforms and brilliance of Aluma militaire Sustained the Empire Until the mid-1600s, When Its Power Began to fade. By the late 1700s, Borno rule extended only Westward Into the land of the Hausa. That Time Around, Fulani people, Invading from the west, Were Able to make major InRoads Into Borno. By the early Nineteenth century, Kanem-Borno Was "clearly an empire in decline, and in 1808 Fulani warriors Conquered Ngazargamu. Usman dan Fodio led the Fulani thrust and Proclaimed a jihad (holy war) is the Irreligious Muslims of the area. His campaign Eventually Engagements Kanem-Borno and has Inspired Trend Toward Islamic orthodoxy. Muhammad al-Kanem Purpose Contested the Fulani advance. Kanem Was a Muslim scholar and non-HAD Sayfawa Who put together warlord alliance of Shuwa Arabs year, Kanembu, seminomadic and Other Peoples. Eventually He built a capital at Kukawa (in present-day Nigeria). Sayfawa but Remained titular monarchs Until 1846. I'm his year, the last May, in league with Wadai tribesmen, precipitated a civil war. It Was not That Has That Kanem's son, Umar, Became king, ending one of the Malthus longest dynastic reigns in regional history. Although the dynasty ended, the kingdom of Kanem-Borno survived. Purpose Umar Who eschewed the title in May for the simple designation Shehu (from the Arabic "shaykh"), "could not match Loved father's vitality and gradually the kingdom Allowed To Be Ruled by advisers (wazir). Borno Began to decline, as a result of istrative disorganization, regional Particularism, and attacks by the militant Wadai Empire to the east. The decline continued Under Umar's sounds, and in 1893 Rabih Fadlallah, leading by year Invading army from eastern Sudan, Borno Conquered. Ref: U.S. Library of Congress

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The Krio Fula of Sierra Leone The Fulani (or Fula) people in the Settled Futa Jalon region of Sierra Leone Nearly Three Hundred years ago, and mixed with the People of the area. As the term Krio Fula Indicates That They Are of mixed ancestry.The Krio Descended from African slaves Freed Who Settled On The Coast Of Sierra Leone "during the first half of the Nineteenth Century. These Freed slaves intermarried with Many groups in the area Already Sucha have the Kru, the Mende, the Vai, the Mandinka, the Kissi, and the Europeans. The Resulting mixture of cultures and languages Produced Eventually the Creole race, Called Krio.The Krio Fula Inhabit the western peninsula of Sierra Leone near Freetown, The country's capital. The area in Which They Live consists "of very heavily Wooded mountains rising from coastal swamps. Annual rains can Reach 200 inches, and the IS Humidity Usually very high. Their language, Also Called Krio Fula Belongs To The Niger-Congo language family. The Krio Fula are skilled cattle farmers "Primarily, with Their Lives DEPENDING upon and revolving around the cattle herds. The status of a family can Be Determined by the size and health of Its cattle. The more a man knows about cattle herding, The Greater compliance HE IS a sealed envelope the community. Herding cattle IS Usually a male activity, howeve, the women milk and take care of the cattle. Theys Also tends to the livestock and poultry small, cultivate gardens, and carry containers of milk and cheese to the local markets for sell gold trade. Most Krio Fula Also urges In Some type of farming. Rice is cultivated in the swamps on the peninsular coast, while millet, peanuts, vegetables are grown and Other Farther inland. Krio Fula villages are Scattered, EACH Has A central goal short and a mosque. Together, a community composed thesis. Each community Has A village hean Who handles affairs and chief Who has answers to. The homes of the Krio Fula are Settled round with mud walls and thatched roofs That projects over encircling porches. Howeve, nomadic Krio Fula live in simple structures, Since They Are so Often moving with the herds. These houses Have Neither walls nor verandahs, and are encircled by cattle corrals.With Their Mothers Daughters reposer Until THEY sorry. Howeve, as soon as puberty has his Reaches, ET leaves the family compound and lives alone in a nearby compound, with Usually Some cattle. This new compound Will Be the Home Of The Loved and his future wife. The Krio Fula are 90% Muslim, Many Still Follow Their goal Traditional Beliefs. In Their ancient religion, the nomadic herdsmen prononcer to find relevance for the experiences and dangers of Their lifestyle. Some men practice herbal healings, divination and magic. Fertility IS prayed for have important year moyen de Ensuring the future supply of herdsmen and Milkmaid. Meat from the cattle Is Not Eaten by the Krio Fula, EXCEPT for ceremonial purposes. The herd owner's feast Is One SUCH ceremony. During, this feast, a bull That Has Served Ten Season is Presented, Killed, and Eaten.

The Fula Liptako

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(See also Jelgoove) The Fulani people are named Generally LUKAS to Their locations, occupations, and dialects. The Fula Liptako Inhabit the Liptako Gourma region. LiptakoGourma Region IS site location is the Border Area Between Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. It Is made up of part of the territories of Burkina Faso (57%) of Mali (21%) and Niger (10%) WHERE Some 14 million live Gutman.The Fula Liptako are a branch of the Fulani living in the Masina District of Central Mali and northern Burkina Faso. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Fulvia Have Many migrated eastwards to Oudalan Liptako, and Into Yagha Niger. Ltr part of the Jelgoove Fulani sub-group. The Jelgoobe Descended From Two chiefdoms That Hair migrated from region of Mali by 1750. According To Their oral traditions, They Arrived from Masina in Mali, Driving the cattle of the Jallube in the 17th century, Because Of Famine And The Struggles Of That politique region. Purpose THEY DID not escape Entirely thesis, for THEY Became in 1824 the eastern edge of the Islamic Dwina kingdom of Ahmadu Cheiku, Based in the Masina HAD Their goal rebelled and leaders killed. Theys appealed to the king of the Mossi Yatenga Who Attempted to rule imposes Mossi. The Jelgoobe Both Threw off Until the French Arrived in 1864. These and Other Fulvi of different origins and dates of arrival are Varied Called Fulvia Jelgooji, like the Fulvia Kelli. Purpose sacrifice part of the Riimaybe excaptive Who Possibly Gaining Their Freedom in the conflict with the Mossi around 1834, live in the town of Djibo and speak the language of the Mossi. The Town Is About 25% Mossi, A Further 18% are Riimaybe Also speaking Fulfulde. In this region 72% of the population of IS Fulfulde language and culture, goal only 44% are Fulvia, the rest Riimaybe Being, Who Now Have independent farming in Yukon. The Fulvia living in hamlets The surroundings speak Fulfulde and INSIST on keeping "status as a new serie cattle cattle owners in the Fulvia tradition. Many migrated south "during the Droughts of the 1980s. Goal Since Then Have Remained That giving further prospered Better Than the farming population. This has been "Helped by new water holes and a cattle market in Djibo. The herds are a very important asset to the Liptako. Milk from the cattle and goats Provides the hand portion of Their diet. Butter IS Made And Also sold at the markets. Meat is only at major film festivals Eaten ceremonies. The Liptako Both raise long-horned and short-horned cattle. Two types of sheep are bred Also: one with one with hair and wool. The wool sheep are important for trade, and indicate where and the Economic Status of Their owners. Values have SUCH valor, bravery, and strength are important to the Fulani. This is shown in one interesting custom Liptako Known As Sharo

Masina Introduction

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The Fulani Mostly live in the West-African Sahel. Their migration With Their herds in the north IS limited by the Sahara Desert, And in the south by the tsetse flies infested areas. Howeve, At The Edge Of The Sahara Desert, There are rich and fertile lands. There, the Niger River Delta extends Almost 200 kilometers in Mali, Leaving 50 to 75 miles of fertile land for agriculture and for cattle. That? S where is Located Masina e mango malaango (Masina the great and blessed). The Fulani population groups are named to LUKAS Their locations, occupations, and dialects. The Masinaare Also Called fulva Masina gold Masinankove are a branch of the Fulani living in the Masina district of central Mali and northern Burkina Faso. Society The culture and lifestyle of Masina are Virtually identiques to giving further Fulani of Other Peoples in West Africa. The hot, tropical climate of the Masina district Provides wet and dry seasons, and seasons dictate the thesis lifestyle of the Fulani. Ltr a semi-nomadic people, mixing farming with shepherding. "During the dry season, Which Lasts about kiln months, the young men move Usually the herds of cattle, sheep or goats to the flood complain in search of grazing land Better. The life of young Fulani men herding the cattle in search of pasture "during the transhumance Was Brilliantly portrayed in a documentary entitled Love in the Sahel. Herders Camp in mobile shelters made of poles or branches Covered with straw, leaves, or mats. While the young men are Migrating with the herds, Their Wives, and the younger children stay at the homestead with the family elders, Tending to the gardens. Theys raise a Variety of vegetables, staple crops are intended Their rice and millet. SUCH A few "animals as horses, donkeys, chickens, and dogs live on the farms Also. In the wet season, the herds and the intransitive families in the villages. The herds are a very important asset to the Fulani. Milk from the cattle and goats Provides the hand portion of Their diet. Butter IS Made And Also sold at the markets. Meat is only at major film festivals Eaten ceremonies. Cattle are the type of livestock Kept hand, sheep and goats are intended Aussi raised. Herding cattle IS Usually a male activity, although the milk and help women take care of the cattle. Also the women tended to the livestock and poultry small, cultivate gardens, and carry containers of milk and cheese to the local markets for sale or trade. The Fulani Both raise the long-horned, humpless cattle and the short-horned, humped cattle. Two types of sheep are bred Also: one with one with hair and wool. The wool sheep are important for trade, and indicate where and the Economic Status of Their owners. Villages are made up of extended families form a Compound That. Their homes are made of flexible poles and a center post has thatched roof ing. Around Every compound Is a thorn fence. Each of the Fulani clans, whether nomadic or Settled, is Governed by Elder year. The elder village chief answers to a Who Lives In The Generally center plaza of the village. Although Masina Fulani villages are Scattered, EACH Has A Village and a short central mosque. Houses Belonging to the Settled Fulani Masina are round with mud walls Typically and thatched roofs. Each year hut Has encircling veranda. The Macina Fulani nomadic live in open, beehive-shaped huts with no walls or verandas. Each hut IS Surrounded by a cattle corral. With Their Mothers Daughters reposer Until THEY sorry. Howeve, as soon as

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puberty has his Reaches, ET leaves the family compound and lives alone in a nearby compound, with Usually Some cattle. This new compound Will Become the home of the wife's and His Future. The first marriage of a Man Is Usually arranged by the man's father. A brideservice of Helping the girl's father with livestock IS Loved Performed by The Man, Who Usually HE IS marries while in His early twenties. Children Belong To age-groups (shovel) Until THEY sorry. Year Age-group (Fedde) At Three gold oven underinsured motorist year intervals, With Every child born in years giving further Belonging to That sets. The children in year age-set go to school together and work and play together Often. When the time arrived for marriage, They May Events help One Another With The brideservice. Within EACH age-set are a leader, a deputy, and a judge. Like Other Rural Areas in Mali, The Masina district IS Divided Into castes. The Masinankove are Muslims. Children Are Taught in Islamic religious schools. Howeve, They Are Also Taught Pulaaku, the importance of being has Fulani by the elders, Who Thrive on Spreading Fulani traditional stories and culture to the next generation. To the Fulani children are the future. They Do not believe in afterlife year, so children are the only means clustering by Which THEY can live on from generation to generation. Theys Believe That Their sound-through, Their names and features Will remain. Over the years sacrifice part of Them Have Moved from Being Exclusively shepherds, to Being scholarly, Influential Leaders in Their Communities. Special Places: DJENNE: Surrounded by floodplain, And Sometimes it an island, Some Say This Is The MOST beautiful town in the Sahel. Founded in around 800 AD by the Bozo people, Djenne Became a way station for gold, ivory, lead, wool, and kola nuts. Mopti: Mopti, has-been a hub of trans-Saharan trade Since ancient times. The city annually Became important site in the 19th century When Fulani scholar Ahmadou Cheikou Lobbo Made it the year of Masina Empire outpost, Which Was it centered Djenne and the Fulani pastureland around it. Timbuktu: In the 11th century, the Tuareg set up a permanent camp here on the north bank of the Niger and left the settlement in the care of An old woman named Timbuktu. The town Became year major commercial center. It Also Became year major center for Islamic Studies How to get to Masina AIR Mali? S national airline Air IS Mali (L9). Airlines Operating Between Mali and Europe include Aeroflot and Air . Approximate flight times: From Bamako to London Is 11 hours (Including stopover in Brussels gold Paris). International airports: Bamako (BKO) IS 15km (9 miles) from the city (travel time? 20 minutes). A bus service est disponible Into the city. Departure tax: CFAfr10, 000; CFAfr8000 for destinations in Africa. Children

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under

2

years

are

free.

RAIL: There Is a twice-weekly service from Bamako to Dakar (Senegal) Which Has air conditioning, sleeper cars and restaurant facilities (travel time? 35 hours). It Will Also Carry cars. There are plans to extend rail Also Into links Guinea. ROAD: The best connections are from road Cote d? Ivoire and Burkina Faso. There Are Also road links with Senegal, Guinea, Niger and Mauritania. The allweather road Follow the Niger you as far as Niamey (Niger). Travel through the Algerian border IS Currently regarded dangerous and not recommended. Bus: Services operate-from Kankan (Guinea) To Bamako, "As well as from Bobo Dioulasso (Burkina Faso) To Segou and Mopti, and Niamey (Niger) To Gao. From Cote d? Ivoire, There Are Three nozzles per week (travel time? At least 36 hours). From Niger, The national bus line SNTN Operates Three weekly nozzles to Mali. See Also: Hamdallaye Cheikou Ahmadou Lobbo, and Amadou Ba Hampathé Masina Travel Links Hamdallaye Hamdallaye Now Is a shadow of What It Must Have Been a century ago. Prior to the arrival of the French Segou When Was Powerful and Practicing traditional religion, This Was the center of the Masina Fulani's Emerging Islamic Empire and a center of Islamic education at the time. Currently It Is Not Even Labeled maps are MOST. A brief description of the Founding of the ITS organization and Hamdallaye Provided below are. The site selected for foundation of Hamdallaye Was Located in edge of the area of flood, the river of Remotely reasonable, the way of great penetration and Exchange of West Africa Timbuctu Connecting to Jenne, and with the foot of the rock escarpment of Kunar, Which constituted excellent natural Barriers. Amadou Cheikou Submitted the project to the great council ADOPTED Which it. The notable ones Were feels to examine the ground and to make plans for the buildings. Two Thousand Concessions Were Granted to heads of family in the Wishing to Settle new city, Whos Been HAD center reserved for the mosque and the concession of Cheikou Ahmadou Himself. The distribution of the seats on Monday Took Grounds, Which like counts dates from the foundation of city. The construction of the Sami mosq Began the day. Took every body part is the construction. When the construction of the mosq Was finished, the marabout (Religious Leaders) is There to "give thanks to God. The construction of Hamdallaye Lasted Three Years. When It Was sufficiently advanced, the council feels great circular letters, "under the signature of Cheikou Amadou Asking all the boat owners in near by cities of weighting, Diennéri, Mourari, etc., to send Their boats for the transfer of the Gutman of the village of Noukouma and Their marchandises. One sample of thesis and letters Arrived in Tékétya Was read at mosq. The mosque of Hamdallaye HAD Been Built "under the direction of masons

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come from Jenne. It Did not understood minaret, nor "any kind of architectural ornament. The walls, made Were Believed unmolded bricks. Wood Pillars ed roofs, and in place Were Such A Way to not have the sight obstruction. There Were Twelve lines of about Pillars, directed North-South and thirteen Limiting transverse spans. The mihrab Was At The Bottom Of The building, in the east,, and the one side elevated pulpit year. Moreover There Were longitudinal rows: two in north and two in the south. The first pair of rows reserved Were To The readers of the Koran and the scribes Who Reproduced rare works, the second pair of rows Were reserved for the tailors Who made the shrouds. The Covered Was Preceded unit, one the western side, by a courtyard of about the Sami dimensions. Water filled vases of pottery Were Placed at the corners for ritual ablutions. Ahmadou Cheikou? S residence Was Divided Into rectangular and Many Parts: Cheikou? S personal residence, a library, a burial ground sounds wherehis Were Buried, and the Seven-door meeting room. It Was Called Because The seven-door meeting room facings north HAD Three Doors, Three Doors facings south west and one door facings. Lastly, all the western part of the residence Was reserved for travelers from abroad, orphans, old persons. Without Resource Persons Were Also Housed and nourished with the dépenses of the community. The city Itself, Divided Into eighteen districts Was Surrounded By An Enclosing wall oven with doors called: Damal Sebera In The West Damal Fakala in the south Damal Ba 'Ben in the east Damal Kunar in north. The supply of the city Was Ensured by a central market and eighteen secondary markets, one by district. A supervisor Was in charge of Each District and controller of measurements. The Salesmen Grouped LUKAS To The Nature of Their marchandises. Was Most Significant salt, Then Came the Gold Which one Preserved in pipes of gold feather Thatches of millet has cut the length of a finger. No food was cooked to the Proposed purchasers ", EXCEPT the morning of the Yoni and sinassar. Almost all the concessions Were Equipped with a well. Those of Bourema Khalilou and Guro Malado Were regarded to "give the best water. "During the rainy season, the Gutman could "go to draw water at the edge of the flooded plain. Counted in One Hamdallaye more Than 600 Koranic schools, "under the top management of Alfa Nouhoun Tayrou. All Were The Has the burden of the community and the teachers Were Paid by public funds. No one "could not open a school to Be Without reconnu suited to teaching and Without the authorization "of Receiving Alfa Nouhoun Tayrou. The hand Taught subjects included: The Koran Tafseer of the Qur'an commentaries gold Hadith, the traditions gold Relating to the actions of the Prophet Tawhid gold KM of God and His attributes Oussoul golden principles of the canon law Philosophical Tassawouf gold mystic The secondary subjects Were Taught only in one small number of schools. They were: Nâhou gold grammar Sarf gold syntax Mani gold rethoric

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Baydn golden eloquence Hard gold Mantik Allay Takandé Was Recognized As the Koran MOST eminent scholar. The Teaching of the girls Was Ensured by women. Cheikou Ahmadou Taught Himself is the Koran and the Life of morning Mohammed the afternoon. The police force of the city Was Ensured by seven marabouts Directly reporting of the general council: Hambarké Samatata Alfa Guidado Send Hamma Oumarou Alhaji Seydou Bela Modi Bela Goure Dyadyé Allay Takandé The offenses; Were Reported to one of the seven member of the general council. There Were civic rules and codes of conduct the Gutman Which Were to Abide by. Hygiene and cleanliness Were Also Covered by a precise adjustment. Each head of family Was responsible for the clearness of the Neighborhood and Loved concession. Hamdallaye Was Said To Be clean inside out. On the market, the saleswomen Were To Have Covered the milk and closed to new serie em a container full of water in order to wash the cup Used to Measure the milk. Was it forbidden to sell the meat of a sick animal. The security of Hamdallaye Was Ensured by Alfa Futa Samba, with a troop of horses 10.000 strong. A portion of the troop Was Permanently stationed inside the city, comme au serving Was stationed with the surroundings. Armed guards patrol Performed routine GUARANTEE Every Day to the safety of the country. Ahmadou Cheikou Lobbo Cheikou Amadou Tall and handsome Was a Fulani man with a copper colored skin and a straight nose. He Carried year Unshaven hair in the Manner of the prophet Mohammed. His Eyes Were sharp, piercing with a glance. He Walked With A long bamboo cane. He liked to rock Sometimes Loved flesh. His modest clothes Were, and Were Made of cotton seven bands. He Loved head wrapped in a long turban, and shoes with leather straps Carried. He Said ITS prayer with prayer beads and Spent Most Of Loved nights in reading and meditation. a chain of grains made of tanned 22. It ED MOST of the night in speeches and meditations. His words Were Measured, precise and Always ed by quotations from the Koran or Hadith. He Always Knew how to put Loved interlocutor in confidence and at ease. His inspiration Was Much Higher Than What of Acquired ET-through study. Naturally calms, Ahmadou Cheikou discussed and Did Not Without ion engages in a Debate UNLESS He Was sure to be right and What Was Able to PROVE Loved point. He HAD seven qualities Which Made Him the Loved WISEST of time: He Did Not get Carried Away When people DID Unpleasant Things To Him He Did Not engages in Against opponents dispute Loved

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He He He He He

never envy others? Belonging never got rid of the beggars never lied "any one occasion Did Not Do Anything to embarrass Loved slanderers Loved word never failed.

Amadou Ba Hampathé This work has RECALLS single experiment in the history of Islam and Perhaps, of Africa the eighteenth century int. Cheikou Ahmadu, a simple Fulani shepherd, Undertaker, it was the faith of prophecy dream, to gather and of the Highly nomadic Fulani Settle. Malthus ET Founded the Fulani Empire of Masina, basing ITS organization and structure are the rules Which are the Governed the Life of the first Moslem community, the time of Prophet Muhammad of the, in Medina. He Succeeds in Bringing peace and Maintaining it while Regulating the Movements and The Period Of The seasonal migration of the herds year thanks to open dialogue with the People Concerned. This work IS Entirely Drawn from the oral tradition. During, 15 years of research, Ahmadou Ba Hampaté Heard at least 1000 advisors. After a meticulous selection of work, hey Retained the 80 worthiest testimonies. This Is The result of this work. Amadou Ba Hampate & Jacques Daget The Fulani empire of Macina (1818-1853) Paris. News Editions Africaines. Editions de l'Ecole de Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales. 1975. 306 p

The Sokoto Fulani Overview The Fulani live in northern Nigeria alongside the Hausa people. The Sokoto region, Which lies in the far northern part of the country, houses the sacrifice part of ruling class of the Fulani, Known as the Toroobe. The exercise Toroobe autorité politique and power over the Hausa. Many of the Sokoto Fulani Also Have Spread Into SOUTHERN Niger. While sacrifice part of the Fulani living in this area are Educated aristocrats, others are Bororo, or semi-nomadic herdsmen (by shepherds and farmers "part). The Sokoto Fulani either ', are Composed of the ruling class (Toroobe) and the semi-nomadic shepherds (Bororo). The area THEY occupy open grassland with ya une narrow forested areas. Camels, hyenas, lions, giraffes and Inhabit this region. Though the temperatures are Extremely hot "during the day, They Are Much cooler at night. Traditions of the Sokoto Fulani The semi-nomadic Sokoto Fulani engages In Some supplementary farming, animal breeding Along with. Millet and Other grain crops Are Their hand. Milk drunk and have fresh buttermilk, IS Their staple food, and only Meat Is Consumed DURING ceremonial occasions. The cattle are herded by the men, although the women help with milking the cows. Also the women make butter

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and cheese and do the trading at the markets. Among the Fulani, Wealth IS Measured by the size of a family's herds. The semi-nomadic Sokoto Fulani Live in temporary settlements. "During the harvest, the families live together in small huts That make up village compounds. Each compound IS Surrounded by the family's garden. "During the dry season, the men leave Their wives, children, the sick, and the elderly at home while THEY take to Better Their herds grazing grounds. Each village chief or hean Has a handle to village affairs. Like the Toroobe (ruling class), the semi-nomadic Sokoto Fulani are Divided Into age groups of Three or Four Years intervals. The contention in youth age groups work together and help Each Other DURING Their early years. A man selects a flange Usually from Loved age group. The Settled Fulani Sokoto (the Toroobe, or ruling class) are year Influential people Who live in towns and cities. They Are Usually government workers, tax collectors, and municipal rulers. These Sokoto Fulani are Educated and Dominate the leadership of Islam in the area. Although THEY May Own Some cattle, Their real interests "binding in istration, law, religion, and education. Their children are Encouraged to go to school and do well. Because the Fulani Were a moral, pious Group Who Had an "interest in learning, the droits of the Muslim Mosk ED Were to 'em, making' em Eventually the leaders of the Muslim faith. Mallam (men of learning) are revered and Treated with Respect In Their Culture. Sokoto History The Sultanate of Sokoto Was Founded in 1804 When the Fulani nomads, headed by Usman dan Fodio (1754 - 1817), a Religious Leader, revolted Against Their shrugged and Overlords Took Powe. Their movement in the extended territoire Of What Was To Become Northern and Northern nigeria cameroon. HEADS OF STATE Sultans - Emirs al-Mu'minin - Sarkin Musulmi (1) (1) Also Sometimes styled khalifs gold Shehu's INSTEAD of Sultans House of Muhammadu Fodio 1867 - 1873 Usman dan Ahmadu Rufai 1814 - 1873 1873 - 1877 Atiku Abubakar dan na Rabah BelloIts of Sultan Muhammadu Bello (1781 - 1837; st 1817 - 1837) 1812 - 1877 1877 - 1881 Dan Ahmadu Mu'azu Bello, Brother 1816 - 1881 1881 - 1891 Umaru Aliyu Baba dan, Son Of Sultan Aliyu Baba (1808 - 1859; st 1842 - 1859) 1824 - 1891 1891 - 1902 Abdurrahman "Danyen Kasko" dan Abubakar Son Of Sultan Abubakar Atiku (1782 - 1842; st 1837 - 1842) 1829 - 1902 1902 - 1903 Muhammadu dan Ahmadu Attahiru, the Sultan of Ahmadu Atiku (1807 - 1866; st 1859 1866), driven out by the British 18 .. - 1903 1903 - 1915 Attahiru dan Muhammadu Baba Aliyu, brother of

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Sultan Umaru (s.a.) 18 .. - 1915 1915 - 1924 Muhammadu "May Turar" dan Ahmadu, brother of Sultan Muhammadu dan Ahmadu Attahiru (s.a.) 1 ... - 1924 1924 - 1931 Muhammadu "Tambari" dan Muhammadu, sound, abdicated 1 ... - 1935 1931 - 1938 Hasan dan Ahmadu Mu'azu, the Sultan of Mu'azu Ahmadu (s.a.) 1 ... - 1938 1938 - 1988 Abubakar Shehu dan, nephew 1903 - 1988 MINISTRY (Vizier, Waziri) 1859 - 1874 1874 - 1886 1886 - 1910

Ibrahim dan Abdulkadiri Abdullahi dan Gidado Muhammadu dan Amadu

18 .. - 1910

DIVISIONS OF THE SULTANATE SOKOTO As The territoire Became Of The Sultanate extended to, It Was Divided in 1817 Between the new Emirate of Gwanduand the Sultanate of Sokoto, EACH Being overlord to a number of tributary Emirates, the Sultan of Sokoto Also = remaining overlord of the Whole Empire. Despite this the Sultanate Rapidly Became No More Than a loose federation of the Emirates, sacrifice part of 'em, like AdamawaIndependently acting totally in fact. DEPENDENT OF EMIRATES Gwandu Agai Bida Ilorin Kontagora Lafiagi Lapai Pategi Emirates DEPEND OF SOKOTO Adamawa Bauchi Daura Gombe Hadejia Jama'are Jema'a Kano Katagum Katsina Kazaura Keff Lafia MISAU Muri Nasarawa Zaria

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Sokoto Link http://www.pulaaku.net/leydhe/sokoto/index.html

The Tekruri of Eritrea Overview (See also Fellata) It is believed that Fulani and other West-African on their way to or back from prigrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, have settled in many parts of eastern Sudan and in western Eritrea. In Sudan they are known as Takrir (sing. Takruri). They are also known as Fellata a term given to them by Kanuri people. They number close to 2 millions in Sudan, while in Eritrea that number is significantly less. However, the Tekruris have been part of the Eritrean society for hundreds of years(1). Living mostly in western Eritrea, they had their own quarters in the towns, called Hillet Tekhwarir. They speak Tikarna Arabic , their dialect separated them from other population groups. They were seen as reserved group who elected their own chief. They have a reputation to be hard working and clean and honest people. Crime was uncommon, but they did not educate their children who started working at early age. They married amongst themselves. Because of their superior learning, the Tekruris are regarded as well educated, cunning and wizards not only by the people of Sudan and Eritrea , but also by the people of by the people of Egypt and Saudi Arabia. In fact, it has been reported that country-people are eager to possess amulets of their writing, which are supposed to possess greater virtue than those of any other class of pilgrims (2). They can be classified into 3 groups (1) Pilgrims ing through the Sudan, including the many colonies on the pilgrim routes through Darfur to El-Obeyd. (2) Large permanent colonies, especially in Kessela and Sennar districts. There is also a large colony near Sinnar under Mai Wurno, son of the ex-sultan of Sokoto, and another under Mai Ahmed, ex-Emir of Misau. (3) Two nomadic cattle-owning clans ('Ikka and 'Ibba) with a Dar of their own in southern Darfur, who have been there at least two hundred years and now speak Arabic. Some Tekruris originally from Darfur, have now, however, settled in the neighborhood of Gallabat, on the Abyssinian frontier; and the Egyptian govt has given them some land on a number of years' lease, where they cultivate Dhurra (3). References: 1) Regarding the Tekruri of Eritrea. Contributed by Aida Kidane, 10 Oct 2003 2) The Sources of the Nile; by Beke, Charles T, 1860 3) The Wild Tribes of the Sudan by F.L. James 1884

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The Wasulu people The Wasulu People are ethnic Fulani living in an areas of West African that constitutes parts of Côte d Ivoire, Guinea, and Mali. They live in a region that expands from the southwest corner of Mali, to the northwest corner of Côte d Ivoire, and the northeast part of Guinea. The Wasulu settled among the Maninka (in the north eastern corner of Guinea and the southwestern corner of Mali). It is believed that they setted in Yanfolila and surrounding areas between the 11th and 14th centuries AD. They eventually adopted the language and culture of the surrounding Maninka and Bambara. The Wasulu now speak the Bambara language with a mixture of Malinké which is called Wasalunkan. Many of the Wasulu are farmers, with cotton being their main crop. Islam was introduced among the Wasulu in the late 1800s. Like their Fulani brethren, The Wasulu are almost 100% Muslim. Wasulu villages are often remote and some are inaccessible by car at the peak of the rainy season. Like many West Africans, they live a simple lifestyle depending on locally grown crops to feed themselves. Many people in the communities are farmers, with main crops being rice, peanuts, and corn, a staple in the Wasalun diet. Cotton is also grown, primarily for export. The Wasulu culture has a long and rich history of which music plays a key role. The Wasulu music has become known internationally as Wass and is enjoyed by people of all ages. The super star, internationally known singer Oumou Sangare is originally from the Wasulu group of Mali. Oumou Sangaré is the leading female star of the Wasulu sound, which is based on an ancient tradition of hunting rituals mixed with songs about devotion, praise, and harvest played with pentatonic (five-note) melodies. In addition to the flute and violin her sound is accompanied by the sound of the scraping kèrègnè, women play the flé, a calabash strung with cowrie shells, which they spin and throw into the air in time to the music. Sangaré most often sings about love and the importance of freedom of choice in marriage.

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Country Locations The Principal Traditional Fulanis regions are: Adamawa, Kanem-Bornou, Masina, Futa-Jallon, Futa-Toro and many other regions in West Africa. Fulanis are found in significant numbers include the following republics: Burkina Faso, Cameroon, The Gambia, Guinea Republic, Guinea Bissau, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra-Leone, Sudan (See Table: Fulanis Country Statistics) Countries with a large number of Fulanis

Ethnic Groups and religions Nigeria Nigeria, which is Africa's most populous country, is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups; the following are the most populous and politically influential: Hausa and Fulani 29%, Yoruba 21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%, Ijaw 10%, Kanuri Population: 130 million Fulani: 9% 4%, Ibibio 3.5%, Tiv 2.5%Muslim 50%, Growth rate: 2,54% Christian 40%, indigenous beliefs 10%

Ethiopia Oromo 40%, Amhara and Tigre 32%, Sidamo 9%, Shankella 6%, Somali 6%, Afar 4%, Gurage 2%, other 1% Muslim 45%-50%, Ethiopian Orthodox 35%-40%, animist 12%, other 3%Population: 54 million 8% Fulani: small Growth rate: 2,64% Cameroon

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Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1%indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20% Population: 16,2 million Fulani: 10% Growth rate: 2,34% Niger Hausa 56%, Djerma 22%, Fulani 9%, Tuareg 8%, Beri Beri (Kanouri) 4.3%, Arab, Toubou, and Gourmantche 1.2%, about 1,200 French expatriatesThe Fulani who, together with their herds, are concentrated in the Dosso-AgadezMaine-Soroa triangle. Some have also settled in the West, around Tera, Say and Niamey. They predominate in certain parts of Maradi, Tessaoua, Mirriah and Magaria Districts. Sometimes they live alongside Tuaregs and Toubous. (ref : Upenn)Muslim 80%, remainder indigenous beliefs and Christian

Population: 10,6 million Fulani: 9% Growth rate: 2,7%

Guinea Fulani 40%, Malinke 30%, Soussou 20%, smaller ethnic groups 10%Muslim 85%, Christian 8%, indigenous beliefs 7% Population: 7,8 million Fulani: 40% Growth rate: 2,3% Chad 200 distinct groups; in the north and center: Arabs, Gorane (Toubou, Daza, Kreda), Zaghawa, Kanembou, Ouaddai, Baguirmi, Hadjerai, Fulani, Kotoko, Hausa, Boulala, and Maba, most of Population: 9 million whom are Muslim; in the south: Sara Fulani: small (Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye), Moundang, Growth rate: 3,27% Moussei, Massa, most of whom are Christian or animist; about 1,000 French citizens live in Chuslim 51%, Christian 35%, animist 7%, other 7%

Benin

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African 99% (42 Ethnic groups, most important being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, Bariba), Europeans 5,500Indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 30%, Muslim 20%

Population: 6,8 million Fulani: small Growth rate: 2,91%

Togo African (37 Ethnic Groups; largest and most important are Ewe, Mina, and Kabre) 99%, European and Syrian-Lebanese less than 1%Indigenous beliefs 51%, Christian 29%, Muslim 20%

Population: 5,2 million Fulani: small Growth rate: 2,48%

Central Afric Republic Baya 33%, Banda 27%, Mandjia 13%, Sara 10%, Mboum 7%, M'Baka 4%, Yakoma 4%, other 2%- Indigenous beliefs 35%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15%

Population: 3,6 million Fulani: small Growth rate: 1,8%

Burkina Faso Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani.- Burkina Faso also has several hundred thousand Fulani nomads in the northern part with their goats, sheep, and other livestock.- Indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 50%, Population: 12,6 million Fulani: 8% Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10% Growth rate: 2,64% Cote D'ivoire Akan 42.1%, Voltaiques or Gur 17.6%, Northern Mandes 16.5%, Krous 11%, Southern Mandes 10%, other 2.8% (includes 130,000 Lebanese and 20,000 French) (1998)- Christian 20-30%, Population: 16,8 million Muslim 35-40%, indigenous 25-40% (2001) Fulani: small note: the majority of foreigners (migratory workers) are Muslim (70%) and Christian (20%) Growth rate: 2,45%

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Gambia African 99% (Mandinka 42%, Fulani 18%, Wolof 16%, Jola 10%, Serahuli 9%, other 4%), nonAfrican 1%- Muslim 90%, Christian 9%, indigenous beliefs 1% Population: 1,4 million Fulani: small Growth rate: 3,09% Ghana Black African 98.5% (major tribes - Akan 44%, Moshi-Dagomba 16%, Ewe 13%, Ga 8%, Gurma 3%, Yoruba 1%), European and other 1.5% (1998)- indigenous beliefs 21%, Muslim 16%, Population: 20,2 million Christian 63% Fulani: small Growth rate: 1,7% Guinea Bissau African 99% (Balanta 30%, Fulani 20%, Manjaca 14%, Mandinga 13%, Papel 7%), European and mulatto less than 1%- indigenous beliefs 50%, Muslim 45%, Christian 5%

Population: 1,3 million Fulani: 20% Growth rate: 2,23%

Mali Mande 50% (Bambara, Malinke, Soninke), Fulani 17%, Voltaic 12%, Songhai 6%, Tuareg and Moor 10%, other 5%- Muslim 90%, indigenous beliefs 9%, Christian 1% Population: 11,3 million Fulani: 17% Growth rate: 2,97%

Mauritania

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Maur 30%, Fulani, Soninke, Wolof, Haratin Muslim 100% Population: 2,8 million Fulani: small Growth rate: 2,92% Senegal Wolof 43.3%, Fulani 23.8%, Serer 14.7%, Jola 3.7%, Mandinka 3%, Soninke 1.1%, European and Lebanese 1%, other 9.4%- Muslim 94%, indigenous beliefs 1%, Christian 5% (mostly Roman Catholic)

Population: 10,6million Fulani: 23,8% Growth rate: 2,91%

Sierra Leone 20 native African tribes 90% (Temne 30%, Mende 30%, other 30%), Creole (Krio) 10% (descendants of freed Jamaican slaves who were settled in the Freetown area in the late-18th Population: 5,6 million century), refugees from Liberia's recent civil Fulani: small war, small numbers of Europeans, Lebanese, Pakistanis, and Indians- Muslim 60%, indigenous Growth rate: 3,31% beliefs 30%, Christian 10% Sudan Black 52%, Arab 39%, Beja 6%, foreigners 2%, other 1%.The Fulani nomads are found in many parts of central Sudan from Darfur to the Blue Nile. In the Eastern Sudan there are large Population: 37 million colonies of Fallata the name by which the Fulani Fulani: small are called. They are also called Teckruri and Growth rate: 2,73% believed to number between 1 and 2 millions.In Darfur groups of Fulani origin adapted in various ways to the presence of the Baqqara People. Sunni Muslim 70% (in north), indigenous beliefs 25%, Christian 5% (mostly in south and Khartoum) Somalia

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Somali 85%, Bantu and other non-Somali 15% (including Arabs 30,000)-Sunni Muslim Population: 7,7million Fulani: small Growth rate: 3,46% Eritrea

Ethnic Tigrinya 50%, Tigre and Kunama 40%, Afar 4%, Saho (Red Sea coast dwellers) 3%, other 3%. The Tekruris have been part of the Eritrean society. The common story of their origin is that they were in pilgrimage to Mecca and stayed in Eritrea and Sudan.

Population: 4,362,254 Fulani:1-2 million Growth rate:1.28%

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Fulani Dictionaries Seydou, C. 1998: Dictionnaire pluridialectal des racines verbales du peul: peul - francais - anglais / A Dictionary of Verb Roots in Fulfulde Dialects: Fulfulde - French English Awde N. 1997 Treasury of African Love: Poems and Proverbs Nyiang M. 1997 Pulaar-English / English-Pulaar Standard Dictionary Taylor F. 1995 Hippocrene Practical Dictionary: Fulani-English De Wolfe P. 1995 English-Fula Dictionary (Fulfulde, Pulaar, Fulani): A Multidialectal Approach Bautista A. 1991 Dictionnaire de Fulfulde / Fulfulde Dictionary Mukoshi I.1991 A Fulfulde English Dictionary Daudu G 1989 Papers on Fulfulde Language, Literature, and Culture Egushi I 1986 An English-Fulfulde Dictionary McIntosh M 1984 Fulfulde Syntax and Verbal Morphology Gamble D. 1981 Gambian Fula - English Dictionary (Firdu Dialect) Sonja F. Diallo, 1982-3 Introduction to Pulaar and Advanced Pulaar Sow A. 1971 Dictionnaire Elementaire Fulfulde - Francais - English Elementary Dictionary Pelletier C.1970 Adamawa Fulfulde: An Introductory Course Stennes L 1967 A Reference Grammar of Adamawa Fulani Swift L 1965 Fula: Basic Course AJP, 1960 Introduction to Pulaar (Senegal, Association des Jeunes Pulaar) Taylor F. 1953 A Grammar of the Adamawa dialect of the Fulani Language (Fulfulde)

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Words of Griots

We are vessels of speech, we are the repositories which harbor secrets many centuries old & without us the names of kings would vanish from oblivion, we are the memory of mankind; by the spoken word we bring to life the deeds and exploits of kings for younger generations. History holds no mystery for us; we teach to the vulgar just as much as we want to teach them,for it is we who keep the keys to the twelve doors of Mali I teach the kings of their ancestors so that the lives of ancients might serve them as an example, for the world is old but the future springs from the past. -The words of the Mali griot Mamadou Kouyate, Quoted in D. T. Niane, Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali A.D. 1217-1237

Aspects of knowledge Interview with Amadou Hampathe Ba about Knowledge From a selection from Aspects of African Civilization by Amadou Hampathe Ba Question: Your name is forever connected to a sentence which the intellectuals are in the habit of quoting in the course of their conversations: In Africa, when an old person dies, it is a library that burns. Would you develop this image for our readers? Answer: When I was appointed to the executive council of UNESCO, I was given the mission of speaking to Europeans about African tradition as culture. This was difficult because the Western tradition had established once and for all that where there is no writing, there is no culture. The result was that when I proposed for the first time to take

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oral traditions into as historical sources and sources of culture, I didn't provoke anything but smiles. Some people even asked sardonically what African traditions could possibly have to offer Europe! To one interlocutor who asked me one day, what indeed can we obtain from Africa? I answering: Laughter, which you have lost. Perhaps today one could add as well: a certain human dimension, which modern technological civilization is in the process of erasing. The fact of not having a literature does not prevent Africa from having a past and knowledge. As my teacher Tierno Bokar says: Writing is one thing and knowledge is another thing. Writing is a photograph of knowledge, but it is not knowledge itself. Knowledge is a light which is in man. It is the heritage that consists of everything the ancestors have been able to know. This they transmit to us in seminal form, just as the potential for a baobab tree is contained in its seed. Of course, this knowledge inherited and transmitted by word of mouth can either develop or wither away. It develops wherever there exist centers of initiation and young people to receive that formation. It is lost wherever initiation disappears. African knowledge is immense, varied, and covers all aspects of life. The knower is never a specialist. He is a generalist. For example, the same old man knows as much about pharmacopoeia, earth sciences (the agricultural or medicinal properties of different kinds of soil), and the science of water as he does about astronomy, cosmogony, psychology, etc. It is therefore possible to speak of a single science of life conceived as a whole, in which everything is related, interdependent and interactive. In Africa, everything is History [Histoire]. The great History of life is made up of sections which are, for example, the history of soils and waters (geography), the history of plants (botany and pharmacopoeia), the history of the threads in the bowels of the earth (mineralogy), the history of the stars (astronomy, astrology), the history of waters, etc. These knowledges are always concrete and tend toward practical uses. Knowledges have an order. One begins at the bottom, that is to say, with beings and things that are less developed or less animated when compared to man, and ascends upwards toward man. The earth, considered as navel of the world, is the principal habitat of three sorts of beings, or three modes or manifestations of life: At the bottom of the ladder, one finds inanimate beings, called mutes, whose language is thought to be hidden, being incomprehensible or inaudible to ordinary mortals. This is the world of all that lies on the surface of the earth (sand, water, etc.) or in its interior (minerals, metals, etc.). Next come animate immobile beings. These are living things that do not move about from place to place. They are plants that are able to extend and spread out their branches in space, but whose stem or trunk cannot

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move. Finally, mobile animate beings, from the most minuscule of animals to man, including all classes of animals. Each of these categories is subdivided into three groups: Among mute inanimate beings, one finds solid, liquid and gaseous (literally: smoking) inanimate. Among immobile animate objects, one finds creeping plants, climbing plants, and plants that stand vertically, the latter constituting the highest class. Mobile animate beings include land animals (among them animals without bones, those that shed their skin, etc., and animals with bones), aquatic animals and flying animals. These nine classes of beings correspond to specific moments in the educational process, but these modules are not necessarily successive or progressive. Education is connected to life and dispensed according to the circumstances that present themselves. If, for example, a serpent suddenly leaps out of the bush, this will provide an opportunity for the old master to give a lesson about the serpent. His discourse will vary depending on whether his listeners are children or adults. He could speak about the legends of the serpent, or remedies which can cure its bite. If he is surrounded by children, he will very gladly elaborate on the harm a serpent can do so they will learn to be careful. The study of the earth, the waters, the atmosphere, and all that they contain insofar as they are manifestations of life constitutes the ensemble of human knowledge bequeathed by tradition. But the greatest of all these histories, the most developed, the most significant, is the history of man himself, who is at the summit of mobile animate beings. It is the knowledge of man and the application of this knowledge in practical life that makes man a superior being on the ladder of living things. But one can only say this about man if he is in the state of neddaaku (Fulani/Peul) or of maayaa (Bambara), that is to say, in a fully human state. The history of man includes, on the one hand, the great myths of the creation of man and of his appearance on earth, including the significance of the place which he occupies in the fabric of the universe, the role which he ought to play (essentially the role of axis of equilibrium), and his relation to the forces of life which surround him and live in him. It includes, on the other hand, the history of the great ancestors, innumerable educational and initiation stories and symbolic tales, and finally, history pure and simple, including the great royal traditions, the historical chronicles, the epics, etc.

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Tradition transmitted orally is so precise and so rigorous that one can, with various kinds of cross checking, reconstruct the great events of centuries past in the minutest detail, especially the lives of the great empires or the great men who distinguish history. It is noteworthy that, based on diverse oral traditions, I was able to reconstruct The History of the Fulani Empire of Massina of the 18th Century. In a similar way, comparing oral traditions allowed my friend Boubou Hama of Niger to produce his voluminous works on the history and traditional knowledge of African people. In oral civilization, speech engages man; speech IS man. Whence the profound respect for traditional stories bequeathed by the past. One is permitted to embellish their form or poetic phrasing, but their framework remains unchanged over the centuries, serving as a vehicle for the prodigious memory which is very characteristic of peoples in oral traditions. In a modern civilization, paper substitutes for speech. It is paper that engages man. But can one say with absolute certainty that the written source is more worthy of confidence than the oral source, continuously monitored by the traditional milieu? At this point, it is useful to explain that in Africa, the side of things that is visible and apparent always corresponds to an invisible and hidden aspect which is like its source or principle. Just as the day emerges from the night, all things consist of a diurnal and a nocturnal aspect, a visible side and a hidden side. Indeed, each visible science always corresponds to a much deeper science, theoretical and, one could say, esoteric, based on the fundamental conception of the unity of life and of the interrelation, within the fabric of this unity, of all the different levels of existence. Here there is a domain which, just because it is less immediately exploitable, does not mean that it is any less worthy of being closely examined and explored before the last depositories of this science disappear. As we have seen, African knowledge is a global knowledge, a living knowledge, and it is because the old people are themselves the last depositories of this knowledge that they can be compared to vast libraries whose multiple shelves are connected by invisible links which constitute precisely this science of the invisible, authenticated by the chains of transmission through initiation. In the past, this knowledge was transmitted regularly from generation to generation by rites of initiation and various forms of traditional education. This regular transmission was interrupted because of an external, extra-African action: the impact of colonization. The colonial powers arrived with their technological superiority, their own methods and their own ideal of life, and did everything in their power to substitute their own way of life for that of the Africans. Just as one never seeds fallow ground, the colonial powers were obliged to clear the African tradition to be able to plant their own tradition. Thus from the outset the Western school began to do battle with the traditional African school and to hunt down the keepers of traditional knowledge. This was the époque when all healers were thrown in prison

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as charlatans or for practicing medicine without a license. It was also the era when children were prevented from speaking their mother tongue in order to shield them from traditional influences, to such an extent that at school, a child who was caught speaking his mother tongue had to wear a board called a symbol on which was drawn the head of a donkey, and he was not allowed to eat lunch. The seeds of this new tradition, once sown, have grown and borne fruit. It is for this reason why African youth, born of the Western school, have a pronounced tendency to live and to think "à l'européenne", for which they cannot be reproached because they don't know any other way. The student always lives according to the rules of his or her school. During the colonial period, transmission by initiation, which used to take place on a great holiday and at regular intervals, sought asylum by going underground. Little by little, the removal of children from their families had the result that old people no longer found around them young people who were able to receive their teachings. Little by little, initiation left the cities and took refuge in the bush. But the final blow was delivered by the advent of an independence based exclusively on European ideas and ideologies. Whereas colonialism actually created skepticism and penetrated little into the countryside, the same European ideas, conveyed by modern political parties, mobilized the masses in even the farthest corners of the bush, so much so that the handing down of tradition almost couldn't find any place to be practiced any more. At a time when diverse countries of the world, through the intermediation of UNESCO, devote money and effort to saving the great Nubian monuments threatened by the rising waters behind the Aswân High Dam, is it not more urgent still to save the extraordinary human culture and stock of knowledge accumulated over the course of millennia in these fragile monuments which are men, when the last depositories of this knowledge are in the process of disappearing? By Ahmadou Hampathe Ba

Oral Knowledge At rare, auspicious, and unexpected moments, people share their fascinating life experiences: a grandmother reminiscing about her childhood in a village in the Kano region; a grandfather recalling life as a Shepard in Masina; an old man telling under the palabre tree the absorbing story of his battle against a wild animal; such people have something important to share. But, all too often, experiences shared by voice die with the teller because they are not written down or recorded. Oral history is history in the first person; the way parents and grandparents lived it and ed it.Not many family records survive. Most people have few if any items that once belonged to a grandparent or great-grandparent. Rarely is a descendant lucky enough to have inherited a Koran or older

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documents, let alone any old letters, diaries, or photographs. However, in many African cultures, oral arts are professionalized: the most accomplished oral historians, storytellers and praise singers are elders and spoken word specialists (griots ). The griots in particular have mastered many complex verbal, musical, and memory skills after years of specialized training. This training often includes a strong spiritual and ethical dimension. A Different Way of Knowing Human culture comprises all that is learned, and language is a primary means for learning and transmitting one s culture. Furthermore, linguistic theorists like Walter Ong maintain that a culture s dominant means of communication shape its people s consciousness and ways of knowing the world. Ong ascribes fundamental differences among cultures, and the arts and technologies they create and value, to whether those cultures are oral or literate (writing-based). Consider the following characteristics generalized for traditional oral cultures: 

Knowledge is sacred, magical power, immanent in the spoken word.



Time is cyclical, non-linear: you live in the always of inseparably intertwined past, present, and future (the community = all past, present, and to-be-born ).



Knowledge must be re-called, re-created, re-interpreted constantly, or you lose it; orature lives only insofar as it is repeated, performed by the community. Oral narratives (stories, proverbs, etc.) are practical, flexible, and spiritual; these living texts have no single definitive version.





They vary, adapt, and change with performer, audience, time, place, situation, and need; and if they lose their relevance and power, their memory is discarded. Oral cultures produce powerful and beautiful verbal performances of high artistic and human worth which are impossible once writing has taken possession of the psyche. (Walter Ong)

Reference The information contained on this page comes from a variety of sources, but relies heavily on The Everything Family Tree Book by William G. Hartley (Adams Media, 1998) and Ancestors: A Beginner's Guide to Family History & Genealogy by Jim & Terry Willard with Jane Wilson (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997).

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Fulani languages English: Fulani French: Peul Ethnologue Classification: Linguistic Lineage Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Northern, Senegambian, Fula-Wolof, Fulani Main Language Group FULFULDE, ADAMAWA

FULFULDE, BAGIRMI FULFULDE, BENIN-TOGO FULFULDE, CENTRALEASTERN NIGER FULFULDE, MAASINA FULFULDE, NIGERIAN

Alternate Names

Speaking Population Countries (Millions) 13 Chad Nigeria Sudan

ADAMAWA FULANI, PEUL, PEULH, FUL, FULA, FULBE, BOULBE, EASTERN FULANI, FULFULDE, FOULFOULDE, PULLO, GAPELTA, PELTA HAY, DOMONA, PLADINA, PALATA, PALDIDA, PALDENA, DZEMAY, ZEMAY, ZAAKOSA, PULE, TAAREYO, SANYO, BIIRA, Filatanci. Dialects: MAROUA, GAROUA, NGAONDÉRÉ, KAMBARIIRE, NOMADIC FULFULDE, BILKIRE FULANI (BILKIRI) FELLATA GOMBE BAGHIRMI PEUL, BAGIRMI FULA. 0.180 PEULH, PEUL, Dialects: FULBE0.328 BORGU PEUL, PEULH, FULANI, FULA, FULBE. 0.450 Dialects: WODAABE PEUL, MACINA. Dialects: WESTERN 0.919 MACINA , EASTERN MACINA . KANO-KATSINA-BORORRO 7.6 FULFULDE. Dialects: KANO-KATSINA,

Central African Republic Nigeria Togo Niger

Ghana Cameroon Chad

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BORORRO (BORORO, MBORORO, AKO, NOMADIC FULFULDE), SOKOTO. PEUL, PEULH, FULANI, FULA, FULBE. 1.1 Dialects: DALLOL, BITINKOORE

FULFULDE, WESTERN NIGER FUUTA JALON FUTA JALLON, FOUTA DYALON, FULBE, FULLO FUUTA, FUTA FULA, FOULA FOUTA, FULFULDE JALON, JALON, PULAR, PULAAR. Dialects: KEBU FULA, FULA PETA. PULAAR PULAAR FULFULDE, PEUL, PEULH. Dialects: TOUCOULEUR (TUKOLOR, TUKULOR, TOKILOR, PULAAR, HAALPULAAR, FULBE JEERI), FULACUNDA (FULAKUNDA, FULKUNDA).

Burkina Faso

2.9

Mali Senegal Sierra Leone

2.9

Senegal Gambia Guinea GuineaBissau Mauritania Mali

Ethnoveterinary medicine practices In Cameroon as well as in most developing countries (especially in Africa), disease remains one of the principal causes of poor livestock performance, leading to an ever- increasing gap between the supply of, and the demand for, livestock products. The ever-declining provision of animal health services has resulted in the resurgence of a number of epizootic diseases, undermining the economic efficiency of livestock production in Africa. After elaborating on the nature of orthodox veterinary medicine and ethnoveterinary medicine, the authors propose a complementary approach. Livestock production in the Northwest Province of Cameroon Livestock production in the Northwest Province (NWP) of Cameroon is carried out mainly by Fulani herders. With its 410,000 head of cattle, the NWP ranks third in cattle production in Cameroon. In the last three decades Fulani herders have evolved from nomadic to semi-nomadic or transhuman livestock owners. This evolution has given most of them an opportunity to become agropastoralists. Although transhumance is in general preferable to total nomadism (Williamson and Payne, 1978:730; Niamir, 1990; Brown, 1993), this pattern of life is quite problematic for livestock owners, whose grazing land is often lost as a result of human population pressures. In addition, the yearly burning of native range destroys the less fire-resistant pasture species, eliminates habitat and pollutes the environment. As a result, livestock become malnourished and emaciated because they do not get enough to eat or the feed is of low quality. Under these conditions, they are predisposed to disease and cannot trek the long distances required to find feed. About six decades into colonization in the 1940's, orthodox veterinary medicine was introduced in the NWP. Many orthodox veterinarians did not promote indigenous practices, because they did not appreciate the role which they played. In some places, it was even illegal to treat animals using local herbs without the permission of a vet. As a result, many livestock owners ceased to use local practices, while those who continued to rely on them did so in secret.

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This meant that the knowledge and use of ethnoveterinary medicine declined. Before the introduction of orthodox veterinary medicine in Cameroon, pastoralists depended solely on indigenous health practices. Nomadic livestock owners treated animal health problems using various biologicals from plants and animals, while carefully avoiding disease-infested areas and regions dominated by toxic plants. Their knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine encomed surgery, pharmacology and toxicology (Ndi, 1990:4). Ethnoveterinary practices, especially for ruminants such as cattle and other large animals, were introduced into Cameroon at the end of the last century by migrating and nomadic Fulani pastoralists from neighbouring Nigeria and Chad, who were searching for new pasture (Ndi, 1990:1). Thus livestock owners have used traditional animal health practices for a long time and are convinced of their efficacy. In a recent study conducted by Nuwanyakpa and associates (1995a:16-17), farmers claimed that 33 out of 55 cattle diseases and ailments (60%) prevalent in the NWP of Cameroon are treatable or preventable solely by traditional medicine. Some 9% of these diseases (anthrax, blackquarter, bovine tuberculosis, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia and rinderpest) can only be treated using orthodox methods, while the remaining 31% are dealt with by the complementary use of ethnoveterinary and orthodox veterinary medicines. In the latter case, the livestock owners stressed that orthodox practices should be used only after the traditional ones have failed; they claim that about 91% of their animal health problems can be solved by means of traditional medicines. In some cases, they prefer to use traditional medicines even where orthodox drugs are available (Marcus, 1992:2). The advantages which they ascribe to local medicines include availability, lower cost, efficacy, one treatment for various ailments, and the fact that they rely on local knowledge and manpower, and are based on materials and equipment which are locally available. Collaborative work between HPI**1 and orthodox veterinary institutions (including the Ministry for Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries, MINEPIA and the Institute for Animal Research, IRZV) in Cameroon and elsewhere in Africa has revealed that when it comes to the diagnosis of livestock diseases (e.g. clinical symptoms and post mortem signs), the knowledge of ethnoveterinarians closely parallels orthodox veterinary patterns. For example, the ailment known as Labba in Fulfulde has been identified as blackquarter disease in cattle. Pettu (which means 'falling down in great number') as an epidemic has been identified as rinderpest in cattle (Nuwanyakpa et al., 1995b). Advent of orthodox veterinary medicine and associated drawbacks The enforcement of orthodox veterinary practices--especially following the independence of Cameroon--was the result of a number of livestock epidemics (including rinderpest), the belief that orthodox medicine is superior to indigenous practices, and growing human population pressures, all of which have been detrimental to the application of traditional animal health care practices in Cameroon (Nuwanyakpa et al., 1995a). Livestock owners were forced to stop using ethnoveterinary medicine, as it was thought that orthodox medicines were capable of solving all the health problems encountered in cattle. The government also failed to promote the complementary application

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of orthodox and ethnoveterinary medicine. Orthodox animal health care in Cameroon, as well as in most African countries, is plagued by many problems. These include: inadequate manpower and logistical inputs; scarce and erratic supply of veterinary drugs and supplies; high cost of veterinary drugs and supplies; poor communication facilities and other modern amenities; counter-productive government policies, which do not promote the complementary utilization of orthodox and indigenous knowledge systems; inadequate attention to the development of ethnoveterinary medicine and other indigenous knowledge systems (Nuwanyakpa and Toyang, 1994). The relation between these problems and the current dependence on orthodox veterinary medicine has resulted in a failure to solve the majority of animal health problems. This has been accompanied by an ever- declining provision of animal health services, together with a resurgence of various epizootic diseases which are presently undermining the economic efficiency of livestock production in Africa (PARC, 1991:2). Sustainable interventions to enhance livestock production In 1989 Mopoi Nuwanyakpa, in cooperation with Heifer Project International (HPI), initiated an Ethnoveterinary Medicine/Fulani Livestock Development Project to seek sustainable alternatives for animal health problems. This initiative was triggered by, among other things, the high level of frustration felt by HPI when faced with the expensive and erratic supply of veterinary drugs and supplies. One of the objectives of the project was to promote the complementary utilization of indigenous and orthodox veterinary medicines in sustainable livestock production. (Nuwanyakpa et al., 1990) The parallel use of the two knowledge systems was regarded as important for several reasons, i.e., to bring about a reduction in the dependency on expensive imported veterinary drugs and supplies and the resulting savings in foreign valuta; the possibility of discovering new drugs; the increase in manpower at a lower cost; the improvement in communications and s between livestock owners and veterinarians; the use of more natural drugs, which do not have the toxic effects on animals which are sometimes experienced with synthetic drugs. The HPI/Cameroon Ethnovet Project has adopted multi-facetted approaches in promoting the use of indigenous animal health care practices. For example, it has organized Cameroon's first association of traditional veterinarians and promoted active networking among indigenous practitioners and orthodox animal health care specialists. Indigenous knowledge provided by livestock owners has been documented for most aspects of livestock production, and to some extent in crop production and food processing (crops and dairy products). The information already documented covers the indigenous treatment of 55 cattle, 17 horse, 12 sheep/goat and 21 rabbit diseases and ailments (Nuwanyakpa et al., 1995a:16-18). Using the knowledge of livestock owners

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as a foundation, the project has trained and equipped livestock producers as the primary deliverers of animal health care. Orthodox veterinarians provide , as well as certain critical services, such as vaccines and treatment for the 9% of diseases which stock owners cannot treat themselves, and also study the efficacy of indigenous treatments. The testing of ethnoveterinary treatments for their efficacy has been initiated not only on-farms but also onstations. For example, Nuwanyakpa et al. (1990:59) and Marcus (1992:9) have undertaken several studies on the anthelminthic efficacies of some medicinal plants. Livestock owners have an amazingly good knowledge of ethnobotany, due to the fact that most of the materia medica used in ethnoveterinary medicine are from plants (Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989:13-14). Thus the ethnobotanical knowledge of local people has formed the foundation for the worldwide screening of plant material as potential sources of medical drugs (Spore, 1992:5). In this way, a significant number of ethnopharmaceuticals have been shown to be biochemically active. This explains why about 25% of all medicines are of direct plant origin, while the remaining 75% are from animal, plant and synthetic products (Spore, 1994:3). Livestock owners also have a good understanding of the plant parts and quantities needed, and the methods used in harvesting, processing, storing, preserving and utilizing medicinal plants to ensure good drug efficacy and to enhance the survival of plant germplasm. If the above procedures are poorly executed, plant resources may be over-exploited, which can lead to the extinction of certain species. This means that the best results from medicinal plant preparations can only be obtained when the s are able to judiciously harvest, process, store, preserve and utilize the preparations (Levy, 1988:616; Lötschert and Beese, 1983:12) and establish botanic gardens of endangered medicinal plants (Gbile, 1991:10; Spore, 1992:5) Botanical and backyard gardens of medicinal plants have been established by the project in order to conserve medicinal plants and save them from extinction, and to enhance the availability of medicinal plants. The medicinal plant establishments consist of both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies. Such conservation efforts contribute to biodiversity preservation and significantly increase the accessibility to, and the utilization of, ethnobotanicals. Some 190 of the nearly 400 medicinal plants that have been identified through the Ethnovet Project have now been scientifically and ethnotaxonomically classified. A number of these are listed in the table below, with some of their uses.

Table 1. A few of the medical plants so far identified and some of their major uses. Family

Botanic name Fulfude name

Some uses

Annonaceae

Annona senegalensis

Dukuhi

Diarrhoea and antiseptic (wounds)

Asteraceae

Vernonia

Suwaka

Worms, diarrhoea and

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Bignoniaceae

amygdalina

purgative

Kigelia africana Jillahi

Brucellosis, retained placenta and mastitis

Caesalpinaceae Cassia occidentalis

Tapasa

Worms, blackquarter, anaplasmosis and babesiosis

Crassulaceae

Kalanchoe crenata

Noppi bali

Worms, blackquarter, anaplasmosis and babesiosis

Euphorhiaceae

Ricinus Communis

Kolakolahi Bloat Purge, oil used in drug preservation and istration, antidote to poisoning in animals and humans

Bridelia ferrugiana

Bududi

Snake bite, brucellosis, bloody diarrhoea, fertility enhancement

Croton Ngalawahi macrostachyus

Purgative

Meliaceae

Khaya anthotheca

Kahi

Blackquarter, bloat, brucellosis, ciarrhoea, worms and babesiosis

Mimosaceae

Entada abyssinica

Peluwahi

Ephemeral fever, FMD (foot and mouth disease), babesiosis and worms

Dichrostachys cinera

Burli

Brucellosis and bloody diarrhoea

Moraceae

Ficus elastica

Biskehi

Fertility enhancements (hormone)

Papilionaceae

Tephrosia nana Yomji (wild)

Mange and ticks

Tephrosia vogelii

Yomji

Mange, ticks and balckquarter

Erythrian senegalensis

Bobillohi

Ringworm, mange and brucellosis

Rubiaceae

Gardenia ternifolia

Dii-ngali

Aphrodasiac and growthenhancer

Solanaceae

Solanum aculeastrum

Gitte-nai

Streptotricosis and worms

Seruliaceae

Cola acuminata Gorohi

Babesiosis

Verbenaceae

Vitex doniana

Brucellosis, FMD, shipping fever and anaplamosis/babesiosis

Bummehi

The ethnotaxonomy has been carried out in 10 major Cameroonian languages. The plants classified so far are from 90 families; 20 of the 190 plants classified are also used in human medicine, 11 in milk preservation and processing, 5 as

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insecticidal and raticidal plants, and 20 in soil fertility improvement (Toyang and Wirmum, 1994:4). This means that most of the plants have multipurpose uses. An herbarium for the preservation of mounted specimens of medicinal plants is also being set up to enhance education and research on ethnoveterinary medicine. Conclusion Now that a good number of the plants used in indigenous remedies to treat or prevent livestock diseases have been classified both scientifically and ethnotaxonomically, it is time to publish this information. This is expected to make a substantial contribution to the field of ethnoveterinary research and to development in Cameroon and elsewhere. Formal research in ethnoveterinary medicine will no doubt help to confirm the claims made by ethnoveterinarians with respect to the efficacy of ethnoveterinary treatments by ethnoveterinarians. The project has already started field testing of the storage and efficacy of some of the many ethnoveterinary treatments that have been documented. For example, since 1989, HPI/Cameroon has used mainly two medicinal plants (Terminalia schimperiana and Vernonia amygdalina) as the sole or principal drugs against gastrointestinal tract helminths in cattle. This has resulted in a huge drop in the project funds spent annually on orthodox dewormers. Many poultry diseases and most health problems in rabbits are now also being treated or controlled mainly through ethnoveterinary practices. The recognition and that the Cameroon Council of Experts on Ethnoveterinary Medicine now receives from the government of Cameroon, traditional authorities and development organizations will make possible the realization of the HPI Ethnovet Project.

Ngeh J. Toyang HPI/ANE P.O. Box 808 Little Rock Arkansas 72203 USA Tel: +1-501-376 6836. Fax: +1-501-376 8906. Dr Mopoi Nuwanyakpa HPI P.O. Box 467 Bamenda Cameroon Tel/fax: +237-363822/363284. Dr Christopher Ndi Sali Django IRZV Bambui

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P.O. Box 51 Bamenda Cameroon Dr Wirmum Clare Kinyuy Medicinal Foods and Plants (MEFOPLA) Referral Research Center P.O. Box 5164 Nkwen Bamenda Cameroon Tel: +237-363135

Acknowledgements We are very grateful to all the of the HPI Council of Experts on Indigenous Knowledge, who have allowed their hitherto secret information to be recorded for purposes of this project. All HPI staff are also to be commended for their for, and participation in, many activities leading to the development of this unique project in Africa. Our thanks go also to PVO/NGO/NRMS, GdEF/NGO/SGP Projects and HPI Headquarters, who provided funds for the implementation of this project. The management of the Cameroon Institute for Animal and Veterinary Research (IRZV) is also acknowledged for providing some of its facilities and personnel for the realization of certain laboratory and field aspects of this project.

References Brown, M. (1993) Non governmental organizations and natural resources management in Africa: Pastoral sector, where to go from here? A synthesis document. Washington: PVO- NGO/NMRS Project. Gbile, O.Z. (1991) Identification and pharmaceutical importance of medicinal plants. Ibadan: Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria. Unpublished paper. Levy, B.J. (1988) The complete handbook for farm and stable. St Ives Place: Clays Ltd.. Lötschert, W. and G. Beese. (1983) Collins guide to tropical plants. London: William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd.. Marcus, S. (1992) A preliminary study on the Anthelminthic properties of Terminalia glaucescens in cattle in the Northwest Province of Cameroon: An ethnoveterinarian approach. DVM Theses. Utrecht: University of Utrecht, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. Mathias-Mundy, E. and C.M. McCorkle (1989) Ethnoveterinary medicine: An annotated bibliography. Bibliography in Technology and Social Change No. 6. Ames: Iowa State University, Technology and Social Change Program. Ndi, C. (1990) Preliminary observations on ethnoveterinary therapy among

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Fulani pastoralists in the Northwest Province of Cameroon. Bambui: Institute of Animal and Veterinary Research (IRZV). Unpublished paper. Niamir, M. (1990) Herders' decision making in natural resource management in arid and semi-arid Africa. Community Forestry Note 4. Rome: FAO. Nuwanyakpa, M., J. DeVries, C. Ndi and S. Django (1990) Traditional veterinary medicine in Cameroon: A renaissance in an ancient indigenous technology. Bamenda: HPI. Nuwanyakpa, M. and Toyang, J. (1994) Paraveterinary medicine and animal disease surveillance in the Northwest Province of Cameroon. Unpublished paper. Nuwanyakpa, M., J. Toyang, H. Njakoi, and S. Django, S. (1995a

Plants Medicinal Plants* 1.Barkasone. 2. Barkeji. 3. Bawaami 4. Bryophyllum pinnatum. 5. Catharanthus roseus. 6. Centella asiatica. 7.Chenopodium ambrosioïdes. 8.Dage. 9. Darkase. 10. Jaave. 11.Zoki. 12.Enenguel 13. Folere. 14. Gawdi,gawari. 15. Geloki. 16. Gialgooti. 17. Guguma. 18. Guyab 19. Indama. 20. Jaabe. 21. Kaaki. 22. Kekamedi. 23. Lantana camara. 24. Liige. 25. Nyebeday. 26. Samtarle. 27.Talli. (kinkeliba) 28. Tasbati.

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*Reference: ENDA-Environment and Development Action in the Third World (ENDA-TM) is an international non-profit organisation based in Dakar, Senegal.

Oumou Sangare The Wasulu people are ethnic Fulani who have adopted a Manding language close to Bambara, Bamanankan. Wasulu is a dialect of Bamanankan in Mali, but also spoken in Guinea and Cote d'Ivoire near their borders with Mali. Oumou Sangare, the Internationally know singer is originally from the Wasulu group of Mali. Oumou Sangaré is the leading female star of the Wasulu sound, which is based on an ancient tradition of hunting rituals mixed with songs about devotion, praise, and harvest played with pentatonic (five-note) melodies. In addition to the flute and violin her sound is accompanied by the sound of the scraping kèrègnè, women play the flé, a calabash strung with cowrie shells, which they spin and throw into the air in time to the music. Sangaré most often sings about love and the importance of freedom of choice in marriage. At the age of 21 Oumou recorded her first album, Moussoulou (Women), released in 1990. It caused a great stir because of the subjects in the lyrics which were not usually publicly expressed, most notably her big hit 'Diaraby Nene (The Shivers of ion)', and also her chosen rhythm. Oumou's songs use the resonating jittery sound of the kamalengoni - the youth version of the hunter's harp. The radical mission of her songs is to highlight the issues that women in Mali face, especially polygamy. Further albums in the 1990s were Ko Sira and Worotan. You don't have to look very far to find one of Oumou's songs on African music compilations Empresses of Africa and Africanesque are just a couple. Several of Oumou's songs feature on the soundtrack of the powerful movie Beloved (1998). Since the CD Worotan 5 years ago, Oumou has concentrated on producing music for the Malian market and a few other projects, including the building of a hotel in Bamako called Hotel Wasulu and touring countries in Africa. In January 2003 Oumou participated in Festival in the Desert in the northern part of Mali, her presence was notable because of the recent civil war in the North. Her song Wayena is on the festival CD. Later the same year Oumou was at international summer festivals including WOMAD festival in Reading UK. She was in London for the Jazz Festival in November as part of a major international tour. Oumou Sangare was a featured artist at the 2003 Smithsonian Institute

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Folklife Festival in Washington, DC USA. She has a new internationally released double CD as well in 2003, simply entitled Oumou; it includes notes on the songs provided by Oumou herself. The CD is a 20-track compilation of 12 songs from her existing CDs plus 8 tracks not previously on CD. DJs are already promoting 'Yala' as one of the best dance tracks on the album. A few of the songs give advice to young people, such as Djorolen and NGuatu. Oumou's performances on stage are truly spectacular as she and her dancers spin calabashes in the air

Baaba Maal performer, in West African culture, tradition dictates that the ancient griot caste must produce the singers and storytellers, and Maal was born in the city of Podor in 1953 into the fisherman's caste. Despite his parents' insistence that he become a lawyer, he grew up surrounded by music, absorbing both the traditional sounds of the region as well as American R&B and soul, later discovering jazz and blues. As a teen Maal moved to Dakar, ing the 70piece orchestra Lasly Fouta and teaming with his guitarist friend Mansour Seck to form the group Lasli Fouta; during the early 1980s, the duo also spent several years in Paris, where they recorded the 1984 album Djam Leelii. Upon returning to Senegal, Maal formed the group Daande Lenol -- literally, The Voice of the people, and began honing a highly distinctive sound fusing traditional African music with elements of pop and reggae; in 1988 he issued the LP Wango, the first in a series of highly successful albums which also included 1991's Baayo, 1992's Lam Toro and 1994's Firin' in Fouta. In 1998, Maal released Nomad Soul; the first recording on Chris Blackwell's new Palm Pictures label, it featured cameos by Brian Eno, Howie B. and others. A succession of records followed on Palm during the subsequent three years. Baaba Maal's music is filled with the mysteries of ancient Africa. Like the griots he ires, Maal sings of history and heroes, bringing the lessons of the past into our lives today, as heard on the "Black Hawk Down" soundtrack. Maal brings his acoustic group, focusing on the folkloric and intimate music of Africa. Delicate in appearance, Baaba Maal sings with hurricane force. His music embraces the gentle filigree of West African folk, and the toughness of urban music. Adapted from Jason Ankeny, All Music Guide. Fore More on Baaba Maal see the websites listed below. http://www.newworldbuzz.com/maalreview.html http://www.baabamaal.tv/ http://africanmusic.org/home.html

Words of griots

Griots are called many things including, African wandering poet and musician, guardian of oral tradition, a village entertainer, praise singer, and oral

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historian. The cast of griot is found in almost all the West-African cultures. Griots are born in the cast ofas Griots, they're not chosen nor have they evolved their entertainment or singing talents to become griots.. Traditionally, there are two types of griots: those who are musicians and those who speak. In the Fulani society, those whose exclusively play the hodu (ngoni) musical instruments are called wambave (sing. bambazo). Generally, a griot's role in society included everything to do with communications: oral history, genealogies and social rankings, messages of social or diplomatic significance, talking drum, war drums, royal and dancing drums, music, storytelling, and buffoonery. Griot families were attached to particular noble families or a community, receiving protection and often generous remuneration in exchange for their services. One of their most important function is to keep the genealogy of families and communities. The transmit their knowledge of the genealogy and historical feats from generation to generation, is primarily attributed to the dominant oral culture. They often sing songs that praise an individual and tell their history or songs that are of historical or entertainment nature. They specialize in many types of instruments such as the the molo, hodu, nyanyoru, Kora, balaphone which is ed on from generation to generation from father to son. The women griot sing, dance and also play the calabass and gourd. Music The most popular instruments are introduced here. The balaphone resembles the western xylophone and varie in design from place to place. For example the senegambian balaphone is made up of 20 rectangular wooden slats. Two rows of calabashes below the slats serve as natural amplifiers. We play it with two mallets, wooden sticks with the tops covered with cloth. The music is a mix of percussion and melody. A kora sounds like a harp-lute. The body is made from a calabash, that has been cut in half. Thereupon we place cowskin. A traditional kora has 21 strings, made of fishingline. The strings are plucked by the thumb and forefinger of each hand. The other fingers hold the two vertical hand posts. We tune the kora by moving the leather rings on the hardwood neck. Although the (flute) and nyanyoru (violin), the drums are present every where is the Fulani music and dance.Drums called buuba or mbaggu. Over time, Fulani have evolved many music genre such as: sorawo, leele, wango, and pecan. Through songs the communities store their history, teach adolescents the secrets of adulthood, and praise important figures. Religious chanting frequently goes on all night, and is specially heard during religious holidays blasting from loud speakers on public transport. Modern popular singers such as Baaba Maal have mixed the traditional Fulani music and rhythmic base with various modern modes of music to produce sounds which are well appreciated throughout the world. Dance A traditional drumming and dancing program consists of several parts. When the three drummers begin the buuba, the women of the village form a big circle. The women will sing and if the music is good, they will dance. The neighbours or age groups organise parties for a variety of purposes: weddings,

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naming ceremonies, harvest, wrestling matches, group fishing, which are all accompanied with dancing and drumming. Words of griots We are vessels of speech, we are the repositories which harbor secrets many centuries old & without us the names of kings would vanish from oblivion, we are the memory of mankind; by the spoken word we bring to life the deeds and exploits of kings for younger generations. History holds no mystery for us; we teach to the vulgar just as much as we want to teach them, for it is we who keep the keys to the twelve doors of Mali &... I teach the kings of their ancestors so that the lives of ancients might serve them as an example, for the world is old but the future springs from the past. The words of the Mali griot Mamadou Kouyate, Quoted in D. T. Niane, Sundiata: An Epic of Old MaliA.D. 1217-1237

Links: Fula Flute African music and history Contemporary Music of Africa Djimo Kouyate Books (About griots) Amkoullel, l'enfant peul by Amadou Hampaté Ba Amadou describes his youth (1900-1920) in colonised West-Africa. ...his work is of enormous historical and ethnological importance... (Le Monde). Performing Africa by Paulla A. Ebron. A detailed ethnographic study of the role griots have in Gambian society. A bit too scholarly at times for the average reader but the way she writes about her personal experiences in The Gambia, the interview encounters and her travels is thouroughly enjoyable. In griot timeby Banning Eyre. Banning spent 7 months with Djelimady Tounkara, the guitarist of the Rail Band in Bamako, Mali. In his book he tells about music, musicians, griots and every day life in this Westafrican country. A great book for musiclovers and people interested in West Africa. Griots and griottes by Thomas A. Hale. Tom Hale is a professor of African, French and Comparative Literature at The Pennsylvania State University. So if you want well documented and unbiased information read this book. Our grandmothers drumsby Mark Hudson.

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Mark spent 14 months in The Gambia, working with and doing research among the women of Dulaba. He is also the author of The music in my head. The griot's craft by Jan Jansen Jan conducted his research about the skills of griots as mediators among the griots of Kela (Mali). The two hearts of Kwasi Boachi by Arthur Japin. A beautiful novel about two young Westafrican princes who left their home country in 1837 to study in The Netherlands. The African Child by Camara Laye An of the author's experiences during his boyhood in Guinea. A beautiful book, first published in 1954 but still available in the bookshops around the Serrekunda mosque. Under the baobab tree by Rosemary Long. In 1989 journalist Rosemary from Scotland came to live with Ray from The Gambia. The columns that she wrote for the Glasgow Herald about her new life are now published as a book. A nice read for newcomers to The Gambia. Pastoralism and Water in Africa Moving Toward CSDPastoralism: A Livelihood in itself In comparison with settled societies, nomadic pastoralism represent marginal phenomenon, which is not known by the vast majority of global development actors and academic authorities of the developed countries. This is mainly due to the specific nature, and characteristics associated with nomadic lifestyle and pastoral livelihoods. As a result, nomadic lifestyle and even pastoral decision making process is often described as pure madness. For over a period of centuries, African societies have been governing themselves and managing their resources in a sustainable manner. The traditional decision-making of pastoral and agro-pastoral societies are deep rooted in social, cultural, economic, environmental and practical knowledge which has been adopted based on harsh arid and semi-arid conditions they live in. The nomadic lifestyle is, or for pastoralists, the best and only way of surviving in the hostile living condition they happen to live in. This nomadic lifestyle is based on complex calculation, which takes into consideration external and internal factors that affect various aspects of their lives, and integrate past experiences with tie present and future needs. Pastoral mobility is not purely base on locating and going after water and green pasture for themselves and their livestock wealth, but reflect appropriate coping mechanism against the ethnic hostilities and natural calamities. Pastoral social set-up and traditional governance system reflect best means and ways of dealing with the antagonistic circumstances they live in and covers inter and within ethnic conflict and disputes, traditional resource management practices (including water), defense and security of specific ethnic groups, early warning system and disaster management, social safety net and traditional charity system, protection of culture and social values, religious teaching and practical learning system, communication and exchange of information and

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ideas, sustainable management and optimum utilization of natural resources, and protection of natural environment. In absence of outside intervention and imposition of alien practices, the traditional nomadic societies tend to live in harmony with the natural environment. Lessons learnt from past experience however suggest that both governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGO s) operating in Africa failed to understand this reality. As a result, their intervention in the past decades impoverished pastoral societies through systemic disintegration of each and every element of local capacity. Pastoralist have been excluded from global development arena Current technical water approaches have been employed on the premise that pastoralists, who are also among the poorest in Africa, have little to contribute to the on-going global debate on water. The consequence of this is outright exclusion and eventual marginalization of pastoralists from taking a central role in water related issues affecting their own lives. Moving Forward The followings represent some of the priority issues which need to be addressed :       

Pastoralists need to contribute to their own water resources management based on their specific needs. Water strategies often need to be specified and not generalized. Community based pastoral water associations that are responsible for developing, operating and maintaining their water sources need to be promoted. Pastoralists water supply need to be improved in order to increase availability and minimize water-induced conflict, Rehabilitation of devastated natural environment need to be emphasized, Pastoralists knowledge, practices, techniques and experiences need to be recognized with a view to reaching a consensus between pastoralism an other development sectors . Pastoralists-based knowledge need to be integrated in defining and setting up policies, priorities, vision and approaches on water development with pastoral communities.

Tradional and modern communications

In traditional Africa, the individual does not and cannot exist alone except communally. He owes existence to other people, including those of past generations and his contemporaries. Whatever happens to the individual is believed to happen to the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole group happens to the individual. Traditional Africans also preserve and express the ideal of harmonious

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community-living through their dominant ritual symbols. In an effort to ensure that this and other important value relating to their survival, is well preserved and successfully transmitted to successive generations, in the absence of developed literary culture, traditional Africans avail of different kinds of oral means and media to encode and communicate their important cultural values over and over again. Repetition is, no doubt, a typical feature of oral cultures around the world. Traditional Africans rely on speech-forms such as myths, proverbs, wise sayings and songs, as well as art-forms like sculpture, dance, ritual objects, etc to preserve and impress their key beliefs, ideas and values in the minds of successive generations of society. One of the most important tools for community existence and growth is communication. A good communication system allows people to have control of their own life stories and begin to improve the circumstances they happen to be in. Traditional forms of communication include story telling, palabre under a tree, drums, dance music and dialogue circles. Oral communication such story telling and the use of dream to communicate information is still widely used in rural areas. However, the full successes and the potential of the oral tradition in Africa is still well known. The new form of communication such as news papers, magazines, telephones, cellulars, radios and television are gaining wide acceptance among the urban and rural people of West Africa. The internet is still in its infancy. Culture identity must be central to the communication experience. The community should have assimilated any new tools of information technology without jeopardizing local values or languages. These communication experience also could contribute immensely to networking and knowledge sharing. Radio by nature gives people the ability to hear, content, context and even the feelings of ion and pain. On the other hand video gives the ability to see and hear voices therefore allowing a more profound emotional linkage with pictures. Yet video remain expensive and the video equipment is subject to frequent breakdown which makes it unreachable for most rural villages. Both education and communication have been neglected for too long. Cultural barriers misperceptions, as well as beliefs that one form of knowledge is superior to another. And the disdain of indigenous knowledge all have contributed to this neglect. The communication growth and development situation is still embryonic. However, countries have opened radios an television stations all over Africa. Mostly in language foreign to the African culture. The links to some radio and television stations are provided below.

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http://www.comfm.com/live/radio/?k=1 http://www.radio-locator.com/cgi-bin/nation http://www.radio-locator.com/cgi-bin/nation http://.aol.com/dpaterson/radio.htm http://www.tvradioworld.com/region3/ http://www.afropulse.com/music/radio/internet.html

Overview The Education Section of the Jamtan Website is devoted to the introduction of the Fulfulde language. While the Fulfulde is not an official language in all countries with a strong Fulani presence, it plays an important role in the identity of the Fulani people. The cultural relevance of the Fulani language and the tremendous interest about it have been brilliantly expressed in the articles of Cheikh Ahmidou Kane and Sonja Diallo provided below. In the article Languages of Colonization and African Cultural Identity, Cheikh Hamidou Kane examines the impact of the historic clash of culture between the European and the African and African people's motivation in learning French. French is a language of use, practical, utilitarian, functional tool giving access to the modern world, whereas Pulaar (Fulfulde) is a language of life, a reflection of the Fulani peoples' human condition of today and yesterday, the most irreducible means of expressing one's cultural identity. To speak French is on the order of doing and to speak Pulaar, the order of being. In her article Defining education within a grassroots literacy movement By Dr. Sonja Fagerberg-Diallo addresses the questions of the why and the how to develop so-called literacy programs in traditional languages. Sonja Diallo describes the experience of the promotion of National Language in Senegal. S Diallo demonstrates the importance of a cultural dimension in which becoming literate becomes a media both for knowing better one's own culture, as well as for ing that culture in a time of rapid social change. Foreign alphabet, have been used to write Fulani Languages, Arabic in the past, and Latin more recently. However the UNESCO at various conferences in 1966, 1971, and 1989, helped introduce a new writing system. In this website that writing is retained and slightly modified to adapt to the web programming. It is important to note that the University of Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal is developing a Fulfulde Keyboard under the direction of Dr Fary S. Ka. The Jamtan team envisioned both relevant and useful themes about which a series of words and their sounds will be performed. This was divided into 5 sub-groups: Numbers, Vocabulary, Grammar, and Glossary. Several topics

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were chosen including: Numbers, Mathematical Operations , the Computer and the Internet Body, Cooking Domestic Animal, Farming, Fishing and the Environment, Greetings, and Time. Voices were added to most of the .

African Cultural Identity Languages of Colonization and African Cultural Identity It was in Matam, in the region of Fouta Toro, an evening of my childhood a long time ago. Resting on a straw mat spread out on the courtyard floor, one of my aunts, my father's oldest sister, kept an audience of teenage listeners captivated as if attached by invisible strings. Each day at dusk, dropping all other activities, her grandchildren would come to drink from the inexhaustible well of stories, legends, proverbs, riddles, and word plays. A couple of feet from this enchanted circle, two men, the storyteller's sons, would be seated on straight-backed chairs conversing in French. One was a doctor, the other, a teacher. Interrupting herself suddenly, undoubtedly in the middle of the adventures of Samba Geladiégi, the narrator, who didn't understand French would ask her sons, aren't you tired of that? Rest a little. Get down off your chairs and come speak to us in the language of our fathers! I have always had a vivid memory of that scene. Now allow me to evoke another one that goes back to the same time. We were in a neighborhood alleyway, not far from where my father lived. I was with my usual playmate, a boy about my same age. It was in Pulaar, our native language, that we spoke to each other, not yet knowing how to speak French the study of which wouldn't start until a year later. We had already gone through two or three of the games from our daily repertoire when my friend suggested another, "Pretend like you speak French." We immediately started the preparations. Pulling up the wide hem of our traditional robes, we would tighten them around our chests to make a sort of jacket or shirt. Then, rolling the ample pleats of our pants around our legs, we made knickers and European tros. Next, we got a hold of some ash that we used to endow each other with a white face. Having successfully accomplished the masquerade, we would try imitating the gestures of the whites when they talked to each other: hands in the pockets, fists on the hips, or arms folded; standing straight or doing a little pirouette around the other. It was only after these preliminary exercises that we felt ready to speak French, or in other words to emit the strange, foreign sounds which, need it be said, had absolutely no significance whatsoever. Regarding these sounds, I should clarify that my friend and I would force each other to articulate them correctly, to produce them with other parts of our mouth, palate, and throat, than those that we used to pronounce the phonemes of our native Pulaar.

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The significance of my aunt's fiery quip and of our childhood games is obvious. To pretend to speak French indicated that the execution of such an activity was a desired aptitude and brought along with it a coveted status. This powerful motivation was to become a port during our entire life as students. Later on, it was to be transformed into the prideful desire to acquire the same degree in French as the whites, because we had the latent conviction that only such a degree would allow us to claim the same qualifications as the whites in careers of medicine, engineering, etc. Our game was also a way of taking note of the differences between French and Pulaar. Our contrived airs and graces also clearly expressed that for us, the importance of a language's form can't be reduced to a mere linguistic medium but extends to imitation, to style, and to an aesthetic. We were very aware that French is not Pulaar, nor the other way around, and that one shouldn't mix I was going to say genres. As for my aunt, it went even further than that. It established profound differences. According to her, to speak French is to adopt a life of appropriateness. Therefore, one speaks French, just like one works, in the modern sector, and one speaks Pulaar just like the farmer, leathersmith, or craftsman in the traditional way. To speak French one must be standing up, going somewhere, or seated on chairs with the back straight and vertical; if one wishes to take a rest or take part in the joys of family life, it can only be done speaking Pulaar, cross-legged, sitting up or sprawled out on a straw mat on the ground. French is a language of use, practical, utilitarian, functional tool giving access to the modern world, whereas Pulaar is a language of life, a reflection of the Halpulaar peoples' human condition of today and yesterday, the most irreducible means of expressing one's cultural identity. To speak French is on the order of doing and to speak Pulaar, the order of being. As a group, the Senegalese people of today are not far from sharing these views, if one is to believe Pierre Dumont, formerly the director of the Center for Applied Linguistics of Dakaar (CLAD). Socio-linguistic studies, he has written, have proven that the Senegalese peoples' motivation in learning French has been for a number of reasons: social, professional, economic, and technical, but never linguistic. The use of French is reserved for easily indexed situations, outside of African society. What has been suggested concerning the respective vocations of Pulaar and of French could also be said with as much truth of other Senegalese people (and Africans in general) and their perception of the relationship that exists between their dialect and that of the Europeans. In its depth, post-colonial Africa considers that it has, on the one hand, languages of identity and culture and, on the other, languages of usefulness and function. The one being original and oral, the other, foreign and written. The African people see, between their dialects and those of Europeans, the same opposition, the same division, but also the same complementary character, as Léopold Senghor puts it, as those that my aunt saw between Pulaar and French. We will put under scrutiny this latent intuition in the African people in order to evoke its truth because, as is often the case, intuition and its prophetic

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nature is more accurate when it springs forth from the people. This serene, realistic vision of the neo-African cultural landscape, the consequence of its history, contains in itself, imprinted like a watermark, the important lines that sketch the future that the governing elite will have to strive to faithfully build. The socio-cultural terrain with which we are concerned here is vital, fundamental; and the time to accomplish the necessary work in this area is limited. It is, therefore, advisable that the political and intellectual leaders avoid all of the errors of excess or default, the reckless improvisations or the fearful abstentions. To achieve such a reality, they have no better teacher and guide than the people. Therefore, I will explain what I understand, and what I mean, by this unexpressed discourse of the Senegalese people concerning the crucial question of languages. Before the white men landed on the country's shores, penetrated the interior lands, and imposed their laws and languages, the Senegalese people were neither nonexistent nor mute. They lived off their own substance, and their languages the exact reflection of their way of life expressed it more adequately and more perfectly than any other language. Then the white men came from across the sea. The historic clash of these two worlds was devastating and left behind no aspect of the former way of life. The cold witness of history, devoid of both love and hate, attests to the defeat and submission of the Senegalese. It isn't that they didn't resist valiantly on all the confrontational fronts. The fact is that, just or unjust, they were defeated. There are better things to do, thought the people, than shed tears and brood over one's bitterness. It is necessary to take a clear look at the weapons that assured the European victory. In the area of linguistics, what greater efficiency and importance than to substitute French in the place of Senegalese languages to declare the law, to express knowledge, and to facilitate exchange? Instead of protesting French and claiming to eradicate it as an irrational person would be tempted to do the Senegalese chose to send their students to school in search of this language. The choice was so frank and so overwhelming that schools proved to be weak and insufficient, managing to neither accommodate the large number of applicants, nor to give them intellectual and spiritual food in the spirit of an undertaking of mutual civilization. The Senegalese people, solidly entrenched in their original languages, which had been for a long time their only means of communication, undertook, by their own volition, to learn, master, and use the French language. This movement in the present time is a deliberate act of will whose motive is perfectly clear. It has to do with acquiring a useful tool that makes the upheavals caused by the shock of both the future and the past indispensable. Senghor explains to us that we are present for an encounter of giving and receiving, to give and to receive, in an exchange that would cease to be unequal, and which, for the benefit of all, would draw from the best characteristics of all sides. If the dialogue of the Senegalese people is, from a linguistic perspective, the one we have just suggested, let us pause to more profoundly consider it; we can then glean the teachings required in order to define the best course of action.

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The most visible and spectacular element in this panorama is the great, viable presence of national, traditional languages in their survival, despite a long and unfair confrontation with a powerful language endowed with the weapon of writing. The blacks of Africa are not the only non-European people to have been openly beaten with the whip of a calamity-ridden history. The miracle is that they did not disappear, as others have done, and that not only have they survived, but that they still live, grow, and prosper. I see the secret of this vitality of men and their cultures in one specific quality unique to their civilization. This secret, their fountain of youth, is that there is a unique and privileged tie that exists between oral tradition and African life. The oral culture of the black world is certainly vulnerable. By failing to posses the impregnable barricade of writing, it is open to all winds, to all lack of progress. However, even if it bends, oral tradition does not falter. The oral tradition is linked to life, to perpetual and spontaneous renewal, whereas writing is linked to severity, rigidity, and apathy. Maurice Calvet, who was then the director of CLAD, made a striking comment in a conference held in 1968. "The primary function of the speech organs," he said, "is tied to animal survival. To speak, we use the organs designed for breathing: the lungs; to prevent flooding the voice box; the jaws and teeth for catching food; and for kneading and moving food, the tongue." There is no more convincing proof between speech and life. We eat like we speak; we speak like we breathe. We speak like we relax, as my aunt used to say. One cannot say that we write like we eat, or like we breathe, or like we relax: speech is, more than writing, linked to life. Better than does writing, speech assures survival not conservation of that with which we entrust it. More than writing, speech is a living archive. The Senegalese languages have survived because, better than written languages, they conserve life. This virtue alone suffices to recommend them to the filial faithfulness of modern linguistic elite as they work towards edification and rebirth. It is another virtue of our oral traditions that refers them to the attention of those called to fortify the revival. It has been said that one of the principle characteristics of oral society is the close association that exists between language and social practice. Again, Maurice Calvet sheds light on this comment by saying, the structural ethnologs have shown, he reminds us, the strange yet fascinating similarity that exists between human structures and institutions (kinship, rituals, hierarchies, etc.) and the very structures of language. Profoundly rooted in society, The oral tradition explains the world, the history, the rituals, the surrounding nature, and the relationships with neighboring ethnicities. Oral tradition ensures and protects the multiple functions of memorization, of values, of ethics, and of aesthetic expression. The oral tradition, being the and medium of a living society, better assures social reproduction than does writing. In the face of brutal attacks of all kinds against African societies, oral tradition has afforded opposition to an elastic and inconstant reaction, thus ensuring the survival of these societies. Furthermore, oral tradition dictates an aesthetic expression richer than writing. Speech is not tied to the only organs that ensure animal survival. In

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speech, the whole body participates in the transmission of the message, unlike writing, which is paralyzed. If so desired, the speaker can easily increase the power of his or her expression by incorporating facial expressions, hands, and even the whole body. One can make speech rhythmical like a drum; it can be made to sing and dance. It is true that one can do the same with writing both with prose and especially with poetry but in a less immediate fashion. Let us refer one last time to Calvet. He says, Language is in its most pure form spoken language, the act of speaking. All other forms of language: body language, drummed-out language, whistled language, and written language are subsidiary forms of oral language, achieved by transfer. Languages of life, languages of survival, life-preserving languages of our societies, irreplaceable in their ability to express the Senagelese people's sensibility, culture, and civilization can you just throw these vital cultural forms away in history's wastebasket, all in the name of progress? There is not a soul in Senegal, a land of reason and imagination, situated on the forefront of cultural attachment, who would make such an irrational choice. There is not a country in Africa more capable than Senegal at sensing the need to define political causes called for by historical necessity. That is why the problem today is not that of choice, for the choice has already been made in an unequivocal and unanimous manner by political and intellectual élites. The task that these élites are challenged with is the transition from intention to action, from theory to practice. For the moment, let's come back to the linguistic and cultural panorama of contemporary Senegal. This land is not inhabited by only native languages. A foreign language, French, has also conquered, besieged, and still continues to occupy the territory. Having come from somewhere else, known only by a minority, mastered by a still smaller minority, French is, however, the language that proclaims the law, communicates modern knowledge, and facilitates the most important business transactions. It is true that this foreign language was introduced in the country at the threat of bayonets. But if it has remained for so long in a privileged position, it is because of the choice made by the Senegalese people. Two signs are a testament to this choice: first, the movement toward French schools, a movement whose size has sured both the schools' ability to accommodate and adapt to all the students' needs; and, secondly, the upholding of French as the official language even as the country has acquired international sovereignty. What assets, what attractions have ensured the victory of French and its continued eminence? It is an important thing to know. One does not in the slightest diminish the merits of this language in saying that French owes its strength first and foremost, from a linguistic point of view, to the fact that it is a language with a written form. The tool of writing, with all its virtues and spells, couldn't help but have an effect of fascination on the Senegalese people, a people of oral tradition. Political power, urban development, historical records, the codification of laws, the formulation and preservation of beliefs there isn't one of these elements that doesn't take on a whole different aim when ed by the use of writing. We have just said how, throughout a history full of trials and mortal dangers,

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oral tradition has permitted the expression and preservation of these elements of civilization. But the times have changed. In a world where, from now on, neither time nor distance will be an obstacle to communication, an oral culture becomes fragile and endangered. The broadcasting reach of an oral culture is limited, as well as its power of competition and, consequently, it falls in a position of inferiority. The strength of internal sentiment that people of an oral tradition feel towards their cultures no longer suffice to preserve their cultures, especially since these people are entering a phase of technical progress in a united world. The Senegalese peoples' intuitive perception of the mortal fragility of a country deprived of the tool of writing provides one of the explanations for why French has had such an alluring effect on them. However, French was not the only written language present in Senegal. Arabic had been introduced a long time before. So why is it that French prevailed? Certainly because it was imposed by weapons. But we also believe that it is because the study of French called for the use of the child's intelligence and reasoning whereas the study of Arabic, a language of worship, required in the first place the faith of the believer as well as his memory. The acquisition of French was more thorough and its use, more universal. This direct and immediate relationship between the French language and intelligence, reason and intellectual aptitude of its Senegalese speaker was one of the major attractions. From what I've just said, does it mean that French is unable to express the sensibility and heartfelt musings of a Senegalese individual, unable to extract from him and expose to the light of day his most profound identity? Read Chants d'Ombre and the Stories of Amadou Coumba; read Maimouna and Les bouts de bois de Dieu and tell me if Léopold Senghor and Birago Diop. Abdaoulaye Sadji and Ousmane Sembene aren't Senegalese. Senghor is the proof that it is absolutely possible, by the use of French, to reach the most intimate reaches of the heart and soul. Nevertheless, it still takes a talented poet to do this. In truth, the French language has entered into the heritage of Senegal, ing native languages like Wolof, Pulaar, Sereer, Joola, Malinké, and Sarakolé. These are the seven living languages of Senegal today every one as essential as the other. Taken all together, or considering each one separately with French, they express completely and adequately the Senegalese language at the end of this millennium. Individually, they cannot make this claim. It follows that the choice either was clear, or rather that Senegal didn't have the choice. That is why, as Senghor (then president of the Republic of Senegal) wrote, We have decided to choose French as the official language of employment and of international communication, whereas our six principal languages . . . will be promoted to the level of national languages,' because of the expression of our African values. The Senegalese legislator ratified what had already been inscribed in the reality of our culture. The second paragraph of our constitution proclaimed French as the official language. A decree of 21 May 1971 established as law and regulated the transcription of the six national languages. From that time

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on, the legislative and regulatory arsenal establishing the chosen linguistic policy was in place. It was then just a question of going from the formal agreement on the principal to its elaboration and application. So it had been decided that French would be the official language. Next came the classic debate between the old school and the modern school. For, as the radical nationalists would say, in French, by the way, "French is a foreign language and, what's more, the language of the former colonizers. The majority of the Senegalese people don't speak it. It is clear that French is not as appropriate as our other native languages in expressing the profound cultural identity of the Senegalese people. Nevertheless, the Senegalese language that we aspire to build must be compatible with modern progress. In fact, it is on this level of progress that one finds the cultural genius of our people. Consequently, as the nationalists would say, the choice of French is a bad one, from a political, technical, and operative point of view. It would have been better to immediately choose one of our national languages, logically, the one representing the largest minority of our people and make it our national language, by force if necessary." You can't do that, the modernists retort. It's true that French is a foreign language, but it has been a part of Senegal for three and a half centuries. Sure, it is the language of the former colonizers, but colonization is dead, and if French is our official language, it is because of an independent, deliberate choice on our part. That choice made in that way at that moment in time, changed the political significance of the French language in Senegal. Along this political frontier, this choice wards off any of the dangers of internal divisions caused by the other solution. In view of its long presence in our country, in view of the fact that it was imposed upon us as our official language and that of our government, our instruction at all levels has been only in French, common sense, reason, and the imperatives of action require it to remain as such. If we are serious in our desires and if we consider that modernization is our primary objective, then we must not hesitate between French, a written language, one of the great languages of the world, and some other Senegalese language not yet transcribed or modernized. Considering our desire for progress and the fast-paced race of time, French is, at this moment, the best tool. By it our technicians can read, speak, and write the language of modernism, and access a universal heritage. By its use, we can come to know the cultures of the peoples of the earth, which none of our national languages would permit in the foreseeable future. The debate could continue on indefinitely, elaborating on one or many of the pertinent arguments, but there are certainly better things to be done. Let us for the moment focus on what can be done concerning the French language; we will then turn our attention toward the urgent tasks that must be undertaken for the national languages. It is obvious that the most rigid nationalists did not seriously want to abandon the French language. Similarly, the most sentimental modernists were forced to it that on one hand, French, though it may be an official language, is not a maternal language of the Senegalese people, and, on the other hand, that for cultural and psycho-linguistic reasons, a maternal

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language is a medium providing an indispensable education. If, by the nature of things, and because of a lack of available solutions, French is an official language, it must be studied in the best circumstances of quality and effectiveness. As Senghor said, "If one must choose an instrument, it would be absurd to not want the best possible one." I also that that was the feeling that enlivened my playmate and me when, in the alleyway of our village, we would play the game of speaking French correctly. The necessity of French is a consequence that flows from the utilitarian function of French, which is not only itted by all the élites, but strongly desired by the population. Although the necessity of studying French is obvious, the necessity for French to be the only teaching vehicle is less certain. I will not go so far as to say that French should not serve as the sole tool of instruction in certain disciplines for a period of time . Even the most advanced nations, with more modern languages than Senegal at their disposal, show no reluctancy in such a step. What should come to an end is the monopolistic position that French has enjoyed when it is treated as the maternal language of the Senegalese people. Dumont observed, The introduction of the national languages in the official curriculum will modify the numbers attached to the problem of teaching French in Senegal. French will rediscover its rightful place in the Senegalese educational system: that of a foreign language benefitting from the hours, curriculum, but also perspectives usually reserved for traditional foreign languages. The second stage of the Senegalese linguistic plan involves the politics of national language promotion. The decree of 13 July 1972 concerning elementary school teaching in Senegal, clearly laid down these principles, All language transporting a given civilization, we believe that as long as we, the Senegalese people, continue to teach our children a foreign language, whatever it may be, without first teaching them their native language, our people will remain alienated. There is an urgent necessity for the Senegalese people to begin to teach their national languages. An initiation to the French language, which is considered a workplace language, should be given in a parallel manner to the introduction of the teaching of national languages. . . . In Senegal, French will remain a foreign and secondary language whose teaching should begin with clear connections tying it to the national languages. The promotion of national languages to the ranks of taught languages is a complex and considerable undertaking, but it is both necessary and possible to bring about much good, given a reasonable amount of time. Our history has known slower progress than this. Along with the politics involved with a Senegalese educational movement towards a new call to progressively promote the teaching of national languages, another task presents itself: that of literacy among adults in these languages. Even if the educational and intellectual elite come to with the monster that they have created for themselves, the desired objective of rebirth and modernization of the national languages will only be achieved with the participation of the people. Only the dynamism and creative genius of the people will allow them to undertake the obstacles and to make a new

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and fertile culture prosperous instead of the adverse, antagonistic theories brandished by some scholars. I have not lost sight of the possible permutations of the question that we are asked, Is the French language appropriate for the expression of Senegalese cultural identity? I think that I have answered this question, but to be clear, I will repeat this answer in conclusion. Drawing from my own experience with the French language and my knowledge of a few Senegalese languages, judging with my mind and with my heart, having the ambition and the intention of being profoundly entrenched in my black, African tradition, and to be at the same time a militant committed to the birth of a new world, materially self-mastered and spiritually reconciled, my answer to the question is yes. Yes, in the language of humanism there is no aspect of the human condition that the French language would not be capable of describing; the language of a great and old nation, in times past, French was chosen by diplomats and cultivated men of many nations and it remains today one of the principle languages of the modern world. To Prospero, who asked a question similar to that which we are asked today, Caliban answered, You taught me your language. The advantage I have on it is I know how to curse. Considering the manner in which he was treated, having been demoted to servitude, denying his culture, and even his human condition, it is understandable that Caliban was more inclined towards cursing and insult than towards forgiveness. But there are no more lost islands, unknown lands, unrecognized lands. The time of the finished world has started and with it the dawn of the birth of the Civilization of the Universal. The Africans and the French can and want to be present at this meeting, together, in freedom and in brotherhood. by Cheikh Hamidou Kane, author, former diplomat and minister in the government of Senegal transcript from his presentation at BYU, 2 November 2000, translated by Natalie and Zachary Gubler

Perspectives on Literacy Defining education within a grassroots literacy movement The questions of why and how to develop so-called literacy programs, which usually focus on adults and are often in a language without a long written tradition, is part of an on-going international debate. This article gives a voice to a group of new literates in a Senegalese language, Pulaar, who are sandwiched between the national debate over continuing to use an international language in the local school system, and the public policy debate over allocating funds for non-formal education.The official language of Senegal, both in the istration and in education, is French. There are twenty-two national languages, six of which have been officially recognized but which are not used in the educational system. Approximately 58% of school age children enter the public French-language school system; but of these, roughly 80% fail to finish primary school. The pyramid of Senegal's educational system looks like a sharp needle standing up-right on a flat

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surface, and getting ever narrower as the educational years go by. As a result, Senegal's official illiteracy rate is 67% by the latest World Bank statistics. In the face of such dismal statistics, individuals motivated to learn are turning, as adults, to a non-formal, community-based form of education in Senegalese languages. The most dramatic and dynamic of these grassroots movements is unquestionably that of the Pulaar language. Pulaar is a language used by roughly one third of Senegal's 9,000,000 citizens, but it is spoken by some 25,000,000 people speaking mutually intelligible dialects across the Sahel to the borders of eastern Sudan. Educators and policy makers can learn some important lessons from this language community. This article highlights the salient points of this grassroots movement, from exploring the motivations of individual learners to reviewing the socio-historical events which have contributed to converting a literacy program into a cause. Few elements of this literacy movement are more important than the link which has been established between cultural identity and literacy. In an interview with a group of voluntary literacy teachers living on the outskirts of the Senegalese capital, the person conducting the interview was told, ..we must try to revitalize our culture, and literacy in the Pulaar language is one instrument for reaching that goal. (Madden, 1990, p. 18) The personal impact: Studying Pulaar woke me up It is difficult to present a neat definition of the cognitive skills which people feel they gain by becoming literate. They speak more in of generally being more aware. When new literates write, very few of them talk about their efforts in of literacy or illiteracy (known as humambinnaagal in Pulaar). To describe their experience with learning to read and write, almost all consistantly use the term jande (whose meaning is much closer to studies). As one woman said, Studying made me literate, not Because I'm literate I can now start to study. This phrase captures the sense of participating in a learning process which is perceived as a wake up call. All new literates claim that becoming literate brought them pinal, from the verbal root fin- meaning to wake up. The noun pinal is used in to mean culture, values, awareness - that is, being awake. Kuenzi reports this same metaphor in her evaluation report: Many respondents expressed the idea that literacy training had allowed them to explore and get to know themselves. They also spoke of being generally more aware and conscious than they had been previous to their literacy training. Interestingly, the metaphor of sleeping was frequently used by many when asked about the impact of literacy. In describing the effects of literacy on villagers, one respondent commented, They are now more awake. They are able to document things, they are aware of everything that is

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happening in the world. The others are sleeping. (Kuenzi, 1996, p.14) Amongst the things which people say about the personal aspects, both cognitive and empowering, of becoming literate and studying are:         

Studying opened up my intelligence. Now I can take notes of all my thoughts. I can now listen to things and make a choice. It is only through studying that a person can change. At first, I didn't even know how to write my name. Now I know what I should do with my life. I now know my own mind, and refuse to be tricked. From now on, everything that I do, I will stop first to think about it, to get information about whether it is a good or bad action. Studying woke me up, gave me knowledge, and improved my behavior and patience. What has changed in my life is that now I have become a more humble and forgiving person.

Oxenham presents these same thoughts in a more elegant form: ....the technology of literacy has served not simply the intended practical purposes of storing and communicating information. Vastly more important, it seems to have enabled the growth and development of the human reason and its power to combine different sources of information to produce even more understanding and inspiration. It has been potent, too, in the growth of self-consciousness and self-understanding. (Oxenham, 1980, p. 43) One particularily articulate respondant with only one year of Pulaar literacy training and no formal schooling in French shared the following reflection in the Kuenzi evaluation: The fact that I have pursued literacy has helped me in my work. It has given me courage to go all the way with things, to be more rigorous and curious. I used to do things by routine. Before, I couldn't give the dates of your visit. I didn't have memory, precision or observation. Writing has been the most important thing because I can fix firmly on something. (Kuenzi, 1996, p. 15) Kuenzi views the often repeated theme of writing letters and keeping secrets not as a trivial use of literacy, but as a sign of the increased empowerment of those who are able to do so: Overall, the respondents seemed to feel empowered by their experience with literacy.... Many of the respondent's replies pertained to issues of personal efficacy and independence. Numerous respondents note that, after literacy training, they were able to read and write their own letters. Many

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respondents stressed that being able to do so allowed them to keep their secrets. While some might dismiss these often heard remarks as trivial in light of the magnitude of the problems facing villagers and their communities, one would be in error to do so. The sheer frequency with which respondents recounted this new found ability indicates that it represents something important to people. Indeed, being able to read and write one's own letters appears to be associated with the ideas of being able to protect one's interests, keep one's personal business to oneself and thereby maintain control over self. Throughout all of the topics discussed with respondents who participated in a literacy program, the theme of no longer needing an intermediary was emphasized. (Kuenzi, 1996, p. 13) In other words, individuals are fully aware of the numerous ways in which literacy has affected them. This is largely expressed in of personal capacities to think and plan. The social impact: I now dare work in a group Because of the issue of empowerment, it is difficult to separate most comments by those which show either a personal or a social impact. The juncture between the two is perhaps best expressed by the use of the verb to dare, which appears in the vast majority of letters. Daring starts from a sense of personal empowerment, but implies a social action as well. Ong captures the dialectic between the heightened sense of self generated by participation in a literacy program, and the heightened sense of sociability, when he writes, Writing ... intensified the sense of self and fosters more conscious interaction between persons. (Ong, 1991, p. 179) Canieso-Doronila points out that the participation in literacy classes increases an awareness of how to act in a group through learning the communication skills of discussion, facilitation, synthesizing, public speaking, bargaining, negotiation. (Canieso-Doronila, 1996, p. 125) As Kuenzi reports: At the same time that the idea of getting to know oneself was stressed, respondents also strongly emphasized that they had become more social as a result of the training. Many of the same themes regarding changes in demeanor and an openness to the outside emerged in these interviews. (Kuenzi, 1996, p. 14) The issue of change in public behavior is well expressed in the following excerpts from letters:    

Studying gave me the courage to stand in the middle of people and speak the truth. Now when I enter a group, first I listen to what the others have to say, I try to understand, and then I respectfully add whatever I can, based on the technique of good listening. What has changed in my life is that now I dare sit with the elders, something which I couldn't do before. Whether the person be old or young, a man or a woman, I now know

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  

how we can be together as equals. Studying taught me a lot about people. Studying improved my social relationships. What we've seen in studying is that men and women are equal in work.

Clearly, personal empowerment and new skills have led these participants into the social arena, where they can act as both leaders and resource persons to the larger community to which they are attached. Conclusion: What can we learn from the Pulaar experience? A good deal has been written about the relative merits of the autonomous and ideological models for ing literacy. The Pulaar model demonstrates an integration of the two. New literates can very clearly identify both the cognitive and the social gains they have made through becoming literate. Furthermore, these gains are realized both on a personal level, and on the level of the entire community. But the Pulaar model also emphasizes the importance of a cultural dimension in which becoming literate becomes a media both for knowing better one's own culture, as well as for ing that culture in a time of rapid social change. While some of the gains of literacy are seen as having access to what is new and from the outside, somehow new literates have also transformed literacy in Pulaar into a tool to discover and transmit the soul or core of their own culture. --------------Excerpts from: Constructive Interdependence: The Response of a Senegalese Community to the Question of Why Become Literate By Dr. Sonja Fagerberg-Diallo Associates in Research & Education for Development (ARED) Centre Ahmadou Malick Gaye (Bopp) Dakar, Sénégal

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Food & Drinks At this writing, Western Fast food is not yet popular in West-Africa. For the most part, people eat at home (or at a friend's).When families cook, they don't cook for just themselves, they also cook for anyone who may stop by. In villages as well in the towns, people who, hold on to the traditional Fulani ways, group organize themselves into tumbudu or eating group, eating together where every one brings a dish, as in a pot-luck, or take turn in preparing the meal for the group. For meats, there is just about every thing except maybe pork: beef, lamb, goat, cow, chicken, turkey, geese, guinea fowls, pigeon, fish, other seafood... Grains include: millet, sorghum, maize, rice and wheat. For fruits, vegetables, and legumes there are oranges, bananas, pineapples, tangerines, carrots, watermelons, guava, melons, limes, grape fruits, mangos, peppers, tomatoes, onions, peas, sweet potatoes and many other things. A popular oil used for cooking is called palm oil, which is a reddish colored oil made from ground palm kernels. A classic complete meal will include: Appetizers, Main Dishes, Fish or meat, Dessert, a Three-round service of tea and a sharing a Kola nut. The table below shows some of the meals and how they are prepared, and some of the ways that they are eaten. Below are lists of the foods that include traditional and imported and new cuisine.These show how wise food choices and preparation methods of traditional cultures combined with exotic foods and cuisine, promote vigorous good health, longevity and freedom from dental problems and mental disorders.

Food FOOD

Names

Description

Appetizers

Akara

Beans are skinned, ground, and fried into round balls. They are eaten with a spicy tomato sauce and onions. Fried batter of wheat flower stuffed with fish or beef eaten with a spicy sauce. Beignets (where French influence exists), Millet patties similar to pancakes Steamed millet flower, maize flower or semolina Couscous and leaves with fish or meat Boiled coarse ground millet or maize with seasonings Boiled coarse ground millet or

Pastels

Beignets

Traditional Dishes

Buuzi CousCous Lacciri e Haako Nyiiri Nyiiri e Buna

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maize with dried fish and ghee Dessert (see below) Eaten with Fish, Mafe, Sup Kandie, Cassava leaves.

Caakri white: rice cooked or steamed in water, then usually covered with sauce. jollof rice: rice cooked (or Eaten with Fish , Meat, Maro e baked) with ground Lizzi, tomatoes, peppers, sometimes meat and vegetables, other spices, and comes out reddish in color. fried rice: rice cooked in Eaten beans, plantains, meat, ... oils, vegetables, meats, and spices. Black eyed Generally boiled. Eaten with Couscous millet, rice peas Sometimes cooked in combination with maize, or rice, with or without sauce. Sweet boiled plain: White or vegetable oil, palm oil, eggs, Potatoes, yellow yams are peeled, beans and soup yams sliced up, usually into pieces about 3 centimeters, and boiled in water with salt fried: White or yellow usually by itself or as a side in a yams are cut up into long meal thin squares and fried in vegetable oil or palm oil. Water yams are cut up usually by itself or as a side in a and fried in vegetable oil meal or palm oil. Plantains Boiled baked whole in the oven rice, beans, eggs, by itself... maize (yellow boiled: the corn is still on corn) the cob, and boiled in water and salt roasted: the corn is still on the cob, and it is roasted in the oven, or on a grill until it is brown Main Dishes Maro e Lizzi Fish and jollof rice also called Thieboudiene (See Recipe below) afe Recipe Peanut butter stew over white rice (See Recipe below) Chiken Yassa Recipe Lemon Chicken (See Recipe below) Rice Dishes

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Sup Kanje Recipe Laciri Basi Salte

Laciri e Tew

Maffi Haako

groundnuts

Dessert

Okra sauce (See Recipe below) Stewed meat and vegetables over Couscous (See Recipe below) Stewed meat and black eyed peas over Couscous (See Recipe below) Sweet potato leaves (See Recipe below) (See Recipe below) Eaten with boiled white rice

Couscous Haako Used as in Peanut butter sauce, Mafe shelled peanuts (as called raw, or boiled in salt water, or in America anyway) roasted (eaten after the shells are removed of course) Caakri dessert Eaten specially during holidays and ceremonies.

Drinks Drinks

Description

water Tuffam

drink made a mixture of sour milk and water may or may not be sweetened.

minerals (soft drinks)

also known elsewhere as 'pop', or 'soda'.

fruit drinks

pineapple juices, orange juices, etc.

Follere, Bissap Juice

A hibiscus type flower with water and pineapple sweetened with vanilla.

Javve, Sweetened tamarind pods drink Tamarindo Juice Jingeer, Ginger Drink

Crushed ginger with pineapple juice, sweetened

Attaya, Tea

Tea ceremony: Drinking Tea is an important social function. A great deal of ceremony surrounds the making and serving of tea. See Making tea (Below)

The Kola Nut (Goro) The Kola Nut (Goro) After a copious meal, especially during holidays and ceremonies, a Kola nut is used to complete the meal. The Kola nut is broken into small pieces and shared between family and friends. Some Kolanuts have two carpsels, some three, some four some five, and some six which is the highest number of carpsels they can have.

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The Kola nut has a very special meaning in West African Cultures. It is used to seal agreements and contracts. For example it is widely distributed at weddings, naming ceremonies, and conflict mediation. The Kola nut symbolizes understanding, friendship and unity. Kola is used to symbolizes long life in a marriage. It is wishing the couple a long life together. It is broken and ed around to all the well-wishers present for the ceremony. Everyone takes a small bite.

Full Recipes: FLacciri e Haako: Couscous and leaves with fish or meat. *For six people Ingredients (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons) 1steak of fish of 1kg, 2 pieces of dried fish, 1kg of leaves (leaves of black eyed peas or spinach, or collar greens) , 50g of onion, 1 cloves of garlic, 2 fresh hot peppers, 1 strap of green onion, salt, 500g of ground peanut, 1 cup of black eyed peas, 1 cup of dried ground melon or pumpkin seed (jaga), and 2 kg couscous and 1-2 table spoons of laalo. Preparation 

  

Put 2 liters of water in a large pot; add fish, dried fish, onion, garlic, spices and salt. Let cook the whole for a half hour. Withdraw fish from the pot and remove bones. Then in the pot add the ground peanut, the dried ground melon seeds and the black eyed peas. Leave the whole pot to simmer for half an hour. In another pot steam the couscous with 2 Qt of water and 1or 2 Tablespoon of laalo. Serve the Haako sauce over couscous.

Extra  

After the meal, as a dessert people usually mix the couscous with fresh milk and drink it. The fish could be replaced by meat.

FMaro e Lizzi (Thieboudiene) *For six people Condiments (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons) 2 pieces of fish preferably, grouper, Half a pound (250 G) of concentrated tomato, 1 big fresh tomato cut out of pieces, Onion 50g, 1/2 liter of groundnut oil, 4 large carrots, 4 big eggplants., 100g Cabbage, 2 slides of maniocs , bunch of parsley, 25g of dried hot pepper., 2 fresh hot peppers., 1 piece of dried mollusk (yet), 1 tea spoon of pepper., 1 bay leaf., 1 clove of

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garlic, 1 bunch of sour-sour or bissap leaves, 1 piece of dried fish, 1 m of wire of kitchen, 1 whole cauliflower, 6 fresh okra, ½ lb of tamarind, and 2 pounds (1kg) of long grain rice. Preparation                

Cut out onions and a fresh hot pepper . Dilute concentrated tomato in an average bowl, with a half glass of water. Crush in a mortar or mixer the dried pepper and the pepper. Add the parsley thin slice and the clove of garlic, until obtaining the stuffing. Add salt. Make small hollows by places in fish and to put the stuffing at it. Peel vegetables and to soak them in a bowl filled with water. Preheat oil in an enough broad pot to contain the condiments, and to put salt. To make cook fish stuffed as a preliminary during a few minutes .To withdraw It oil and to put it side. Make return in hot oil the dried mollusk (Yët), onions cut out, and the hot pepper. To let cook during 5 minutes. Not to let onions brown too much. Add then concentrated tomato and some fresh tomato cubes. Let cook the whole during 10 minutes. Put per moments a small quantity of water, in order to avoid the formation of juices. Put fish now, to let it cook on the two sides during 15 minutes. Put all vegetables in cooking, before adding a liter and half of water. Let cook until boiling. Wrap the dried fish in the bissap leaves and put them in. Rinse rice and cook it with the vapor of cooking. Then withdraw it. Withdraw fish and vegetables of cooking, as well as a ladle of the bubble. Rectify the seasoning with salt and make cook the rice until it is perfectly cooked. Serve in a dish and to decorate with vegetables and fish on your own way.

Extra Make return from pink shrimps and sweet pepper in cooking at the beginnig for decorer your dish Mafe *For 8 people Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons) 2 kg of meat , 500 G of groundnut paste, 250 G concentrated tomato , ¼ of litter of oil 1 piece of dried mollusk , 1 piece of dried fish 2 big fresh carrots, 2 pieces of cabbage, tubers of manioc, potatoes, sweet potatoes, 2 fresh peppers , 5

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grammes of dry pepper, 2 teaspoons of pepper, a leave of bay-tree, salt, vinegar , 250 grammes of onion, 1 handful of netetou (West-African grain), 2 kg of rice . Preparation    



Heat the oil in a pot rather big Make the meat cook for a few minute Add some salt, some onion cut out, some fresh pepper, some dried mollusk, some concentrated tomato until it get brown. Add water, the groundnut, all the vegetable (except the sweet potatoes and the potatoes) the dried fish and let cook for a few minute. Crush the nenetou, the pepper, the hot pepper, the garlic, and then put in the pot put the potatoes, the sweet potatoes and the fresh pepper. Let it cook until boiling. Cook the rice in salted water. Serve the Mafe sauce over white rice and enjoy.

-FChiken Yassa Recipe *For six people Ingredients. (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons) 2 Chicken of 1.500g each , 3 kilos of onions , 6 cloves of garlic , · 1 hot pepper , · 1 teaspoon of pepper , 20 cl of vinegar , 1 coffee spoon of red pepper , 3 soup spoon of mustard , 1/2 liter of oil , 2 kilos of long grain rice , 10 lemons at least. Preparation          

Crush the hot pepper, pepper, garlic, salt and put it side. Cut out onions in juliennes and marinate with the vinegar, salt, mustard, and oil, add 2 soupspoons of mustard. Let macerate for half an hour. Cut out chicken in pieces, prick them with the stuffing prepared as a preliminary and let it macerate for one hour at least in preceding marinade. Make roast the pieces of chicken in entirety during necessary time (without letting them burn because it will deteriorate the taste of chicken) and put it side. Preheat the pot and pour in it the remaining oil. Make onions return in oil for 10 minutes. Then remove it. Put in the hot oil the remaining of the stuffing, mixed with onions cut out of dice. Let it return for a few minutes. Add glass of water and let it cook a few minutes, before putting chicken in it. Add water and let it cook for half an hour. Prick chicken with a fork to ensure of the cooking. Put the cut out onions as Julienne and let the whole cook for a few minutes. Not to let onions empty themselves of their water, because they are likely to lose their savor. Add some vinegar drops and put the sheet of bay-tree as some lemon

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

juice drops to make it a little acidulous. Cook the rice in salted water and a soupspoon of oil. Enjoy chicken Yasa over white rice.

Extra: May want to add olives and vegetables on the side. FSup Kanje Recipe *For six people Ingredients (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons) 1Qt of palm oil, 1steak of fish of 1kg, 500g of smoked fish, 2 pieces of dried fish, 1kg of gumbo, 2 pieces of dried mollusk, 175g of shrimp, 50g of onion, 1 cloves of garlic, 2 fresh hot peppers, 1 strap of green onion, salt, 2 kg (of long grain rice). Preparation 

  

Put 3 liters of water in a large pot; add fish, dried fish, the yêt and salt. Let cook the whole for a half hour. Withdraw fish from the pot and take the bones out. Then in the pot add the smoked fish, shrimps, toufa and fresh pepper. Crush the Netetou, hot pepper, garlic, onion. Add them in the cooking, before adding the fish. Crush the gumbo, put it in the pot and let it cook. Rectify the seasoning with salt. Put the palm oil in the pot and leave the whole simmer for half an hour. In another pot steam the rice with 2 Qt of water and 1 Tablespoon of salt serve with brown or white rice. Serve Sup Kanje over white rice and enjoy.

Extra Add one spoon of powder shrimp and gumbo. The taste of your sauce will be better. FLaciri Basi Salte *For six people Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons) 1.5 kg of lamb, 250g of onions, 5 cloves of garlic, 2 green onion straps, 3 fresh leek straps, 300 grammes of tomato purée, 2 fresh tomatoes, 1 pinch of pepper, 1 fresh hot pepper, 100 g of sweet potatoes, 2 cabbages, 3 big carrots, 100 g of manioc, 2 Turnips, 25 g of dried pepper, ½ liter of oil, Salt, 3 cucumbers

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For the couscous: 1 kg of couscous (whole millet), Raisins, white beans Preparation:       

   

Prepare a mix with dried hot pepper, pepper, salt, and garlic. Prick the meat and chicken by places with a little mix, then keep the remainder. Preheat the oil in a pot and make gild carrots, turnips, sweet potatoes and. Put aside then. Make return and gild the peaces of meat in the oil and put the whole aside. Take again the mix and add onions cut out of dice and green onions. Salt a little, then put the whole in the hot oil and let gild. During this time, cut out tomatoes in dice and dilute tomato purée in a ¼ of a glass water. Add to the cooking the tomato puree and let cook. Put the fresh tomato in 10 minutes after. Do not forget to put per moments small quantities of water in order to avoid the formation of juices in the bottom of the pot. Add the meat in the pot. Check using a fork the level of cooking of the meat. Rectify the seasoning if necessary. Add the remainder of vegetables and the mix in the pot. You can now withdraw vegetables and put them on side, before they soften in the cooking. You can now steam the couscous, and then add cooked beans and raisins. You can serve in a large dish Basi Salte sauce over the couscous with beans and raisins.

FLaciri e Tew/ Lizzi Fish or Lamb Stuffed with Couscous, Almonds & Herbs (Serves 4) Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)\4 tablespoons olive oil,1 small onion, finely chopped, 2 garlic cloves, crushed, 2/3 cup couscous, 1-1/4 cups fish or vegetable stock,1 tablespoon chopped parsley, 1 tablespoon chopped mint. 4 pieces of Lamb or 4 whole fish, each weighing about, 12 ounces, cleaned, heads removed and boned, Salt and pepper, 1/2 cup sliced almonds To garnish: Lemon wedges and Mint sprigs. 1. Heat 2 tablespoons of the oil in a frying pan, add the onion and fry until softened, adding the garlic toward the end. Stir in the couscous, fish or vegetable stock, parsley and mint. Bring to a boil, then remove the pan from the heat and leave for 10-15 minutes, or until the liquid has been absorbed. 2. Season the trout with salt and pepper and fill the cavity of each one with one-fourth of the couscous mixture. Lay the lamb or fish in a greased shallow

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baking dish. Mix the remaining oil with the almonds and spoon over the fish. Bake in a preheated 400° F. oven for 15-20 minutes, or until the fish flakes when tested with a fork. 3. Garnish with lemon wedges and mint sprigs FMaffi Hakko (sweet potato leaves) Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons) 1/2 cup palm oil or plain vegetable oil , bunches sweet potato leaves, cut finely , 1 med onion, chopped salt, to taste ,pimento, to taste , 2 1/2 heaping spoonfuls of dried, pounded, or cooked fish or beef . Preparation Cut up the leaves, or buy them already cut. Heat the palm oil in a pot until just before it starts to smoke. Sauté the onion until translucent. Start adding handfuls of leaves into the pot, stirring and letting each handful cook down a minute or two. Pour in enough water to cover the leaves by two inches. Add pimento and bring the sauce to a rolling boil. Add fish or beef, and stir in. boil until no water is left on the surface, just a layer of oil. There will be lots of little bubbles, but not the large bubbles as with water as in a rolling boil. Stir often at the end. Serve over rice. FCaakri dessert 2-3 cups wet millet flower, processed into small balls (yerwaade) and steamed 1 32oz. of sour milk or container of vanilla yogurt ,1 small (6oz.) can of condensed milk (un sweetened) 1 tsp. vanilla extract ,1/2 cup sugar . This is a wonderful after dinner treat or specialty eaten during Ramadan, the Muslim holy month. Prepare Caakri to directions. Caakri should be light, not sticky with clumps. Set aside. Mix sour milk or yogurt, condensed milk, sugar and vanilla extract. This should form a very thick milk. Chill milk and caakri. Pour milk into small cups. Add caakri to cups and mix well. Eat with spoon.-FFollere, Bissap Juice 3 cups of dried hibiscus flowers 1/2 tsp. strawberry or pineapple extract (opt.) 1 cup of sugar , 1/2 tsp. of vanilla extract Wash hibiscus flowers in lukewarm water. Boil flowers in 2 quarts of water. Do not boil for more than 1 minute or juice will become bitter. Remove flowers and carefully pour juice into container. Be sure to avoid pouring any sediment from the bottom of pot into container. Let sit until cool. Mix in sugar (add more than 1 cup if needed) and extracts. Refrigerate. FJavve, Tamarindo Juice

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1 cup tamarind pods, 1 cup sugar, 1/2 tsp. vanilla extract As with jus de bissap, boil 2 quarts of water. Rinse tamarind and remove pods if possible. It is not necessary to remove the seeds. Add to boiling water. Boil for 1-2 minutes. Let stand until cool. Use strainer to remove larger sediment and seeds. Keep in mind that this juice is thick and that you should not remove the pulp. Remove smaller sediment while pouring into container. Add sugar and vanilla to taste. Refrigerate. FJingeer, Ginger Drink This tastes just like the stuff you get in little bags - it's delicious. It's kind of a lot of work but it's very good and refreshing. 6 c -Boiling water ;1 c Ginger root: fresh, peeled & -grated ,1 c Sugar, 2 teaspoons Cloves, whole, Cinnamon sticks, 1/2 c Lime juice, fresh or lemon juice, 1 c orange, 8 c -Cool water Pour the boiling water over the grated ginger root, sugar, cloves and cinnamon in a large nonreactive pot or bowl (enamel, glass or stainless steel). Cover and set aside in a warm place, in the sun if possible, for at least an hour. Strain the liquid through a fine sieve or cloth. Add the juices and water. Set aside in a warm place for another hour or so. Gently strain the liquid again, taking care not to disturb the sediment at the bottom. Store in the refrigerator in a large nonreactive container. A glass gallon jar or jug works well. Serve warm, chilled or on ice, either as is or diluted with water or sparkling water. A squeeze of fresh lime juice in each glass of ginger drink is nice. FMaking tea Empty a bag of tea leaves into the teapot, and add appropriate amount of water. Bring it to boil in a special tea pot. Then put fresh mint and sugar directly in the tea pot or into a second teapot for a better mix. To serve, hold the pot high and pour it into a series of small glasses. Holding the pot high creates foam and also cools the tea so that it can be quickly drinkable. People take time over the tea, chatting around the teapot on the stove. Both young and old enjoy drinking tea.

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Proverbs-Pulareeje In serious talk or in ordinary conversation, Africans liked to start with a proverb that speaks about the topic of the moment. The use of proverbs in Africa is a very powerful communication form. It allows people to understand the meaning quickly and also to what was said long after the conversation or the meeting is over. Indeed in the African context, a proverb is worth a thousand words! Although they may be based on given cultures and traditions, proverbs are usually essentially expressions of universal truths. In their application proverbs are not necessarily tied down to the community that first produced them. A Fulani can easily adopt a proverb from another ethnic group and make it appropriately fit his/her circumstance. Proverbs are usually short and highly condensed sayings, which are generally anonymous in their authorship and authoritative in its application. Brevity is, therefore, one characteristic of a proverb, and this brevity helps to make proverbs memorable, that is, easy to learn and retain in memory. Some proverbs are musical, and rhythmic as is shown by the following Fulani proverb, Feere fendi fettande kono virazam haazaani (The need to create made sour milk, but fresh milk is not bitter). The use of proverbs as a source of moral authority is facilitated by their nature. In their brevity, musicality, and depth of meaning, proverbs are not only easily memorable, they are also easy to apply at appropriate occasions. It is their nature, incidentally, that makes it possible for them to be easily used in everyday speech. They help enrich and add color to everyday speech, as they help a speaker make a point briefly, sometimes with devastating effect. As distilled accumulation of time-tested experiences, and ancestral wisdom, proverbs are also useful in the transmission of what are perceived as adequate and desirable moral standards and healthy social interaction. Proverbs initiate youth into adulthood, especially in societies where they are the preserve of elders. And as the youth are initiated into adulthood, they absorb the codes of human behavior as they prepare for future roles as guardians of ancestral wisdom and culture. The following are proverbs from all over Africa. They are grouped into categories, but with many overlapping.

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Proverbs Common sense         

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A hunter who has only one arrow does not shoot with careless aim. When a palm-branch reaches its height, it gives way for a fresh one to grow. One cannot go back to the farmer from whom one borrowed seedyams to plant to say that the beetles have eaten up the seed-yams. If one were to remove every smoking wood from a fire and condemn it as bad, one would be killing the fire itself. It is the brutally outspoken man that earns enmity. The elephant and the tiger do not go hunting on the same pasture. A farmer does not boast that he has had a good harvest until his stock of yams lasts till the following harvest season. He who pursues an innocent chicken always stumbles. The fish that can see that its water is getting shallower cannot be stranded. Without knowing a way thoroughly at day time, never attempt to it at night. It is not enough to run, one must arrive and know when one has arrived. It is a lazy man who says "it is only because I have no time that my farm is overgrown with weeds". Every river knows where its water would not be soaked up into the earth, and that is where it flows past.

Hard work        

A farmer does not conclude by the mere look of it that a corn is unripe; he tears it open for examination. It is little by little that a bird builds its nest. To do one's duty is to eat the prized fruit of honor. A farmer, who would not work inside the rain and would not work under the sun, would have nothing to harvest at the end of the farming year. An ant-hill that is destined to become a giant ant-hill will definitely become one, no matter how many times it is destroyed by elephants. He who is afraid of doing too much always does too little. Sleep and indolence are not cousins of a good harvest. Success is 10% ability, and 90% sweat.

Not giving up      

One must row in whichever boat one finds one's self. When a person regrets endlessly, he gets to pay more for what he regrets. It is little by little that a bird builds its nest. It is not only the fox, even the snail arrives at its destination. However long the moon disappears, someday it must shine again. It is the same moon that wanes today that will be the full moon

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      

tomorrow. It is only the toad that gets up from its knees and falls back again on its knees. The spider that knows what it will gain sits waiting patiently in its web. The praying mantis is never tired waiting all day. One does not become a master diviner in a day. A forest is not made in a season. The swoop of an eagle has seen many seasons and floods... Who says the oasis in the desert is happy because of its hidden spring of water? The cricket is never blinded by the sand of its burrowing. An oil lamp feels proud to give light even though it wears itself away. A bird does not change its feathers because the weather is bad.

Cooperation Common proverbs of cooperation are:           

A herbalist that refuses to ask laymen what leaves he looks for in the bush, must have difficulties getting what he wants. It is a pot of water that is already half full that the world would like to help in filling to the brim. A man can not sit down alone to plan for prosperity. A man who lives alone is either always overworked, or always overfed. A single tree can not make a forest. A single man can not build a house. If a child shoots and arrow that reaches the top of a tall palm tree, then it must be that an elderly person carved the arrow for him. When the right hand washes the left hand and the left hand washes the right hand, both hands become clean. It is by the strength of their number that the ants in the field are able to carry their prey to the nest. Two footsteps do not make a path. Two raindrops do not make a pool.

Patience       

The calf shouldn t be in a hurry to grow horns; he ll have them until he dies. A speedy wrestling and a bad fall go hand in hand. Patient people are patient to gain longevity. However long the moon disappears, someday it must shine again. It is little by little that a bird builds its nest. The thirsty fig sits waiting patiently, waiting for the arrival of the rains. One does not become a master diviner in a day. A forest is not made in a season. The swoop of an eagle has seen many seasons and floods... It is not only the hare, the tortoise arrives also at the destination.

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Kindness          

What good people witness should not become bad. Without knowing a person we must not hate him. He who digs a pit for others must invariably fall into it. By being grateful, a man makes himself deserving of yet another kindness. When the laborer is praised, his cutlass begins to cut more keenly. If the owner of a calabash calls it a worthless calabash, others will him to use it to pack rubbish. Criticism is easy but it does not create. If one imitates the upright, one becomes upright; if one imitates the crooked, one becomes crooked. When a sickle is drawn, it in turn draws the tree to which it is hooked. If a person who curses another is not better than the person he curses, a request is never made of him to rescind the curse.

Honesty    

Money does not announce how it is earned but whereas properly earned money appreciates, improperly earned money depreciates. The bottom of wealth is sometimes a dirty thing to behold. Rather than tell a lie to help a friend, it is better to assist him in paying the fine for his offense.

Thoughtfulness      

A fowl does not forget where it lays it eggs. The habit of thinking is the habit of gaining strength. It is one word of advice that one needs to give to a wise man, and that word keeps multiplying in his mind. Does a man not know when he has pepper in his eyes? If we forget yesterday, how shall we tomorrow. Thoughts and dreams are the foundation of our being. We are what our thinking makes us.

Sharing/Generosity      

Every little tree gives its little bit of shade. It is an unthinking man who achieves prosperity, and then finds with time, that his body can no longer through the door. When an only kolanut is presented with love, it carries with it more value than might otherwise be associated with a whole pod of several kolanuts. The man who re others, re also his creator. The bird that re its flockmates, never missed the way. When a dying man cries, it is not because of where he is going which he knows nothing about, but because of what he wishes he would have done in the world he is leaving behind.

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

The head could not have got to where it is now if it did not give.

Humility      

A performing masquerade who tries too hard to outclass his colleagues may expose his anus. It is from a small seed that the giant Iroko tree has its beginning. A family name is not cooked and eaten, one's life is the thing. A good name is better than gold. He who is courteous is not a fool. The fowl perspires, but the feathers do not allow us to see the perspiration.

Greed 

A bag that says it will not take more, and a traditional doctor who says he would not leave anything behind are both sure to suffer.

Good Behavior            

A man who is advised and he takes it, is still a man who acts from his own free will. When a ripe fruit sees an honest man, it drops. When a fowl gets to a new town, it stands on one leg until it knows that it is a town where people stand on their two legs. A man who has one finger pointing at another has three pointing towards himself. The man who is honored, has first honored himself. Greatness and beauty do not belong to the gods alone. Antagonism is not good for fowls, and it is not good for goats; worse still, it is not good for human beings. Our examples are like seeds on a windy day, they spread far and wide. A clay pot of water is never hot-tempered. A person who picks something and decides to make it his own, ought to think how he would feel if he was the person who lost the property he picked. He who is called a man must behave like a man. One must have to wait till the evening of one's life time to know what gratitude to pay to one's guardian spirit.

Consequences   

A man who is advised and he takes it, is still a man who acts from his own free will. If hunger forces a farmer in a particular year to eat both his yam tubers and the seed-yams, the succeeding years would still be worse because hewould have no yams to eat and none to plant. Sometimes the rain might force a man more than once to seek shelter under the same tree.

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  

When the roots of a tree begin to decay, it spreads death to the branches. It is the fear of what tomorrow may bring that makes the tortoise to carry his house along with him wherever he goes. He who digs a pit for others must invariably fall into it.

Peace        

Let's fight, let's fight, no one knows whom fighting would favor. Two men quarreling do not share the same seat on a canoe. To have no enemies is equivalent to wealth. If the owner of two adjacent farms cannot be friends, then they must wait till their next reincarnation to be able to make friends. Whoever says "let's fight" does not know who will be victorious. When a man finds that he was wrong to have refused to eat, he should leave his anger and play a harp to call for harmony. Without retaliation evils would one day become extinct from the world. A spacious ground is the right place to demonstrate one's skill in wrestling.

Wisdom and age  

If you come to the village of the blind, close an eye until you leave. An old banana leaf was once young and green. Old age does not come in just one day.

Courage    

The sun will not dry what it is not shown He who does not look ahead always remains behind. Courage is the father of success. Charms do not perform miracles on the shelf; they perform for those who are brave.

Family         

Being a younger brother/sister can be worse than loosing a eye. A person who has children does not die. We can not choose who our relatives should be, even though we may come to like some better than others. When a man loses his prestige, he does not regain it by going to where he is not known. A good name is better than gold. A piece of iron can only become what the blacksmith says it should become. It is the habit that a child forms at home, that follows them to their marriage. It is an irresponsible adult that creates enmity because of a disagreement that arises between two children. A child is what you put into him.

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    

Talks that are considered to be important must be made to drag on for so long as to make even the deaf begin to hear it. Criticism is easy but it does not create. Love is better than a whip. A child who has no mother will not have scars to show on his back. Even as the archer loves the arrow that flies, so too he loves the bow that remains constant in his hands.

Friendship     

The eyes can see what they don t like to see, but legs will go only to place they like to go. If a person returns to where he/she went yesterday, he/she liked where he/she went yesterday. To eat from the same pot with another man, is to take an oath of perpetual friendship with him. If one imitates the upright, one becomes upright; if one imitates the crooked, one becomes crooked. Rather than tell a lie to help a friend, it is better to assist him in paying the fine for his offense.

Survival   

It is the toothless animal that arrives first at the base of the fruit tree, to eat his fill before others arrive. If the load is too heavy for someone to carry, one would be better off to give the load to the ground to carry. The tree that cannot shed its old leaves in the dry season, cannot survive the period of drought.

Leadership           

When one is taking a chicken from its roost, the hen is bound to attack with at least its claws. A pad that breaks a pot of water does not remain on the head. A bush fowls' playground is never appreciably spacious. If the owner of a calabash calls it a worthless calabash, others will him to use it to pack rubbish. What affects the nose must also affect the eyes that must weep for it. If a greedy eater is near a patient, such a patient can never survive. There is no elephant that complains about the weight of its trunk. No elephant is burdened by the weight of its tusks. When the elderly ones in a house travel, the younger ones quickly grow in experience. If a soup is sweet, it is money that cooks it. A glorious past is the work of a glorious man. The responsibility of power is like holding an egg. Grasp it too tightly and it will drip through your fingers; hold it too loosely and it will drop and break.

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Misceallaneous                 

The need to create made sour milk, but fresh milk is not bitter The goat that cries the loudest is not the one that will eat the most. It is the self-love of the king parrot that made him become a talkative. The owl is the wisest of all birds because the more it sees, the less it talks. If gold rusts, what will iron do? A masquerade does not perform to an outside audience until he performs well at the home base. Our elders quote the cock as saying that "it would not be good if one becomes the only person in the world, and that is why they crow every morning to show their number". Beauty is not sold and eaten. A masquerade is not a spirit only because of its mask. When a woman prepares a dish which others find unpalatable, she says that she prepared it to suit her own taste. At a time a cockerel matures, it begins to crow to tell the world the time of day. A diviner cannot accurately divine his own future. Once a cock begins to crow, it never again becomes dumb. It is he who has no place to call at that moves fast through life. No frog is tied by a rope to a pond. Money has the capability of making people laugh; but when they laugh, the foolish ones sometimes forget to close their mouths. No one feels the pains that arise from unintended injury.

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