Readiness To Learn And Assessment Of Learning Outcomes On Off-campus Adult Learners 5g104

Readiness to Learn and Assessment of Learning Outcomes on Off-Campus Adult Learners

Sariwati Mohd Shariff¹, Fadzilah Azam Ahmad² and Shatina Saad³ ¹Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA ²Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA ³Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA [email protected] ABSTRACT: This conceptual paper seeks to identify the factors that influence working adults to pursue continuing education and to ascertain their level of readiness to learn during discourse of their educational study. Assessments of learning outcomes are also being studied to determine effectiveness with respect to adult learners’ needs and the off campus programs’ objectives. Based on literature review, intrinsic factors are cognitive, self development needs and personal aspirations, and extrinsic factors are career, economic needs, social needs, cognitive interest, family and opportunity influence working adults to seek continuing education. The learning outcomes on adult learners are evaluated based on the cognitive development, skills and personal development, and affective development outcomes of the learners themselves. Henceforth, based on this conceptual paper, a proposed study is intended to carry out in 2009 on working adults who are currently studying in Off–campus Business Management programs in a local public institution of higher education to determine their readiness to learn and assessing their learning outcomes. Data collection will be done via quantitative survey which will be carried out on all academic staff engaged in conducting off-campus programs to assess teaching and learning of the adult students; as well as on the adult students’ perceptions towards their learning outcomes. A descriptive analysis will be done using SPSS, version 12.0. Results of this study can be used for future continual improvement on adult teaching and learning techniques, and producing quality continuing educational programs towards achieving customer satisfaction for the working adults to pursue lifelong learning and to be competitive in extension education programs. Keywords: Adult learning, learning outcomes, continuing education, lifelong learning

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INTRODUCTION

Knowledge-driven economy, knowledgeable workers, transforming towards learning organizations, human capital development have been extensively discussed by many parties for the past several years since the year 2000; these are strategies to remain competitive in business, operations, market share for business-organizational survival towards globalization. Nowadays, people are not only competing towards competency and skilful on the jobs but also to equip oneself with new knowledge and new technology to keep abreast with the fast changing world and to meet higher expectations and working standards in a stiff world economy. The trends of working adults pursuing further education have been increasing; either pursuing master programs or first degree programs via full time or part time basis. Likewise, the numbers of institutions providing educational courses or academic programs have been growing due to the increasing demand on working adults pursuing further education. With working adults as students in class, the importance of adult learning principles cannot be denied. What motivates working adults to pursue continuing education, and how learning help to improve work performances and develop the human capital? This conceptual paper provides an insight on factors influencing adults in continuing education, adult learning principles and its learning outcomes.

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1.1 The need for continuing education Education has become a condition of existence inseparable from the quality of life (Nowlen,1988). The demand for continuing education will intensify due to the fast changing information technology, the changing nature of knowledge, increasing organizational complexity, the drive to maintain excellence, to remain competitive, the public demand for professional ability, rapid development of new technologies and shifts in governmental regulations (Nowlen, 1988). As for the context within Malaysia, opportunities for continuing education are ample to attract workers towards acquiring higher academic qualifications, via various educational incentive schemes such as provision of educational funds and easy withdrawal from employees provident funds. There are many options for continuing education that vary from short courses, professional continuing educations, trainings, seminars, and formal education. The more formal education one had, the more he/she participates in learning experiences of all kinds throughout his/her life (Nowlen, 1998). Continuing education has its episodic uses, involving continuing learning, self directed learning, informal learning experiences towards development of higher performances, skills and proficiencies to meet the future challenges, new responsibilities and professionalism. With the current global economic recession in 2009 that resulted in worldwide retrenchments and jobless workers are increasing, one appropriate move is to upgrade oneself by undertaking additional academic or professional qualifications so as to add personal worth and value. 1.2 Models for participation in continuing education According to the update model (Nowlen,1988), one pursue continuing education through short courses, seminars, specific programs to update with new information, requirements, knowledge, practices to fulfil the needs to keep current or well-informed. Being up to date is only one aspect of the relationship of knowledge and skill to competence. Workers need to demonstrate the art, skills and wisdom that reflect competence at work. To be competent is to possess the generic knowledge, the ability to demonstrate skills and behaviours related to processes or performances, traits and self schema or image as a professional. The competency model encomes four clusters of abilities, namely socio-emotional maturity, entrepreneurial, intellectual and interpersonal abilities. Competence also include motivation, the process of values and goals recurrently driving behaviour, attitudes, motives, traits and their interplay have relative impact on worker’s performance. A working adult normally and gradually moves through successive working cultures as one progress throughout his/her job careers; meaning a worker executes a variety and multiple cultural roles through the occupational, civic, interpersonal and familial environments. Each role experience can strengthen the individual’s drive for better performance. Contrary to the update model and competency model, pursuing continual learning would enhance one’s work performance as the performance model elicits that successful performance directly resulted when an individual achieves a level of competence; thus he is capable to move on to new challenges. A good performance leads to sustain effectiveness and able to assimilate innovations towards both personal and organizational development (Nowlen, 1988). Based on the performance model in continuing education, the performance of a worker is the result of interacting social and personal influences: the worker’s mastery on baseline knowledge and skills, the ability to challenge new roles, possess requisite human relations skills, critical skills of mind, proficiency in self managed learning, individual development progress, organizational developmental balance, the skills in coping with life surprises as well as its anticipative transitions; and understanding of the influences of environments and culture and skills to orchestrate them (Nowlen, 1988). Other models on adult learning participation such as Miller’s Force-Field analysis model exemplifies that working adults from lower socio-economic group participate simply for job related and basic skills reasons; while adults from higher social groups would seek education to satisfy achievement and self-realization needs; the Rubenson’s Expectancy-Valence Model addressed the decision to participate in later education is a combination of both socialization and structural dimensions as well as the individual orientation; meaning the expectancy consist of the anticipation of being successful in an educational situation, and valence relates to the value a person puts in the education (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). However, the Cross’s Chain-of-Response Model illustrates adult participation learning is the result of a chain of responses to both psychological and environmental factors, staring with self evaluation as to whether achievement in an educational situation is possible; evaluation of attitudes about education; evaluation of the importance of goals and

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expectations; life events and transitions; opportunities and barriers towards learning; and if all the responses along the chain are positive, then the result will be participation in education. 2.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING CONTINUAL LEARNING Whenever we ask working adults why they pursue continuing education, they would most often mention that their education is sponsored by their organizations, secondly there are ample learning opportunities (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Within Malaysia, there are many learning opportunities and choices for working adults. There are independent organizations such as training and consultancy organizations, business or residential associations and learning centres providing informal learning or educational programs; private and public educational institutions offering wide choices on formal learning through part time academic programs. Adults pursue learning where they perceived a performance gap; and that gap is perceived as opportunities for learning. Secondly, concern for measurement: the ability to meet defined, or specific quantifiable measures are seen as ne w learning activity in particular when venturing into new areas. The urge to learn arise when workers develop experimental mindset to adapt to changes in work processes, policies and structures and are willing to try out to learn. Thirdly, the openness and accessibility of information with the advancement in technology triggers that need to learn (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Based on studies in US and UNESCO, the most common cited reasons for engaging in continual learning are firstly, job related motives; secondly personal development; thirdly personal interest and then professional or career upgrading; these clearly show that there is a strong link between an adult work’ life and participation in adult education (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Other studies also shown that working adults pursue education for future changes in the lives, due to life transitions, and learning for its own sake. Houle (1961) described that adults have different sets of learning orientations: some adults are goal-oriented learners who use education as a means for achieving some other goals; activity oriented learners who participate for the sake of the activity itself; and the learning oriented adults who seek knowledge for its own sake. Morstain and Smart (1974) research revealed the six-factors on why adults engage in continual education: 1) social relationship factor: this factor reflects participation in order to make new friends; 2) external expectations factor: complying with the wishes or directives of an authority; 3) social welfare factor: this factor reflects an altruistic orientation; the learners are involved because they want to serve others or their community; 4) professional advancement factor: this factor is strongly associated with job enhancement or professional advancement; 5) escape or stimulation factor: this factor is indicative of learners who are involved as a way of alleviating boredom or escaping home or routines; 6) cognitive interest factor: the adults are engaged for the sake of learning itself. In summary, adults are responsive to external motivational factors such as getting a better job, earning a higher income, to move on or to start a new career, to fulfill social needs and family , and opportunities for continual learning; while the intrinsic motivators within the individuals are the desire for knowledge, personal development and self aspiration. 2.1 Adult learning An adult learner is just a person typically within the age of thirties to forties whom has completed high school education or more, works full time and most often in white collar occupations, earning an average income, married and has children and lives in an urbanized area whom decides to engage in further education with the desire to acquire some knowledge and skills to satisfy personal aspirations (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Andragogy is the art of and science of helping adults to learn (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Andragogy or adult learning principles are based on five assumptions about the adult learner: 1) as a person matures, his/her concept moves from that of a dependent personality towards one of a selfdirecting human being; 2) an adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience, which is a rich resource for learning; 3) the readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the developmental tasks of his/her social roles; 4) an adult is more problem-centred than subject-centred in learning; 5) adults are motivated to learn by internal factors rather that external factors (Knowles, 1980). However, adult learning principles may not be applicable across the board; it is dependable on situations. Henceforth, at times both pedagogy-andragogy principles are applicable within a continuum range from teacherdirected to student-directed learning, and that both approaches are appropriate with children and adults. 5899507

Adult learning is defined as the process of adults gaining knowledge and expertise; and that these learners want to have control over their learning process (Knowles, Holton and Swanson, 1999). Adult learning is largely practical and skill oriented; its subject matter is directly useful in the performance of every tasks and obligations.

2.2 Motivation to learn Adult learners are motivated to learn when they believe that they can learn new things and learning will help them deal or solve a problem that is important in their jobs or tasks. In fact, they learn new knowledge, understanding, skills, values and attitudes most effectively when they are presented in the context of applications to real life situations (Knowles, Holton and Swanson, 1998). Similarly, adults are motivated to participate in learning activities by development issues and changes in their lives (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). 2.3 Readiness to learn Adults become ready to learn those things they need to know and be able to do in order to cope effectively with their real life situations. The implication of this assumption is the importance of timing and learning experiences to coincide with their developmental tasks and social roles. Adults have a self concept of being responsible for their own decisions, for their own lives. Once they have arrived at that self concept, they develop a deep psychological need to be seen by others and treated as being capable of self direction (Knowles, Holton and Swanson, 1998). Certain tasks arise at a certain period in a person’s life, and when that development tasks evolve, that itself produces ‘a readiness to learn” which at its peak presents a “teachable moment” (Knowles, 1980). 2.4 Self directed learner Young adults at times are self directed learners who take primary initiatives for planning, carrying out and evaluating their own learning experiences. The process of self directed learning are a combination of factors such as learning opportunities people find in their environment, the personality characteristics of learners, cognitive processes and the context of learning which collectively interact to form episodes of self directed learning (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). These authors described that adult learners should predispose themselves towards taking primary responsibility for their own learning, and have a positive concept and readiness to learn. Self directed learning is somewhat linear in nature where a learner moves through a series of steps to reach the learning goals through self planned learning activities. 3.0

LEARNING

Learning cannot be fully understood or handled unilaterally (Illeris, 2003); so does learning is central to human behavior yet so elusive to understand (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Learning must be understood as all process leading to permanent capacity change: physical, cognitive, emotional and social in nature. The learning concept also extends to such functions as personal development, socialization, qualification and competence development (Illeris, 2003). Learning involves two processes which are closely integrated: interaction process and the learner and the surroundings, and the inner mental acquisition and elaboration process in the individual. Learning is a process by which behavior changes as a result of experience based on behaviorist theories (Garavan, 1997). Learning involves change that enables the individual to make both personal and social adjustments. Learning process is not a single event; learning has to involve understanding; and learning is essentially a humanistic process (Jarvis, 1995). Gagne (1972) describes there are five domains of learning: “motor skills, which are developed through practice; verbal information, the major requirement for learning being its presentation within an organized, meaningful context; intellectual skills; cognitive learning; and attitudinal learning through the use of human model and reinforcement” cited in Knowles, Holton and Swanson, 1998). Learning defies precise definition because it is put to multiple uses (Smith, 1982). Learning can be a process, a function and as a product. Learning is a process because it involves change (in an individual); a product where learning is being reflected in that change in behavior as the result (outcome) of learning experience, and as a function which emphasize certain critical aspects of learning such as motivation, retention and transfer (Knowles, Holton and Swanson,1998). Learning as 5899507

a process emphasizes what happens during the course of learning experience. On the other hand, learning is often described as the observable phenomena and viewed as outcome or a product where the learning objectives were predetermined and written in behavioral . Learning is deemed to have occurred if the learning objectives have been achieved. 3.1 Constructivist Approach There are many learning theories in existence since the early nineteen centuries that range from the behaviorist theories, social theories and the humanistic approaches. One of it is the constructivist approach. A constructivist orientation maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their experience (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Reality is a social construct; it is personally constructed. Meaning is made by the individual and is dependent on his previous and current knowledge structure. Constructivist learning is seen as an individual or personal activity that involves a progressive adaptation of the individual’s cognitive schemes to the physical environment (Merriam, 2001). Learning is an internal cognitive activity. From the social constructivist view, knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activities about shared problems or tasks. Making meaning is thus a dialogic process involving persons in conversation, and learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled (Merriam and Cafferella, 1999).Hence, the context of learning here mainly focuses on self directed learning among adults. 3.2 Self directed Learning Adults are self directed learners; they are capable of taking control of the goals and purposes of learning and assuming ownership of learning (Knowles, Holton, Swanson, 1998). Self directed learning is a process of learning in which people take the primary initiatives for planning, carrying out and evaluating their own learning experiences; and being self directed in one’s learning is a natural part of adult life (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Self directed learning is situational; at the early stage a learner is dependent on the lecturer and requires close supervision and coaching, but when he has adapted into the learning culture and involved in the system, the facilitator may only need to monitor, and subsequently the rest lies on the learner to be in control of his learning. Hence, self directed learning can be described as self management, motivation and self monitoring.

3.3 Evaluation System Effective training or program must have value for the organization, the institution and the participant. Evaluation emphasizes on the total value of a training or program, in the form of cost benefits and general outcomes such as the value of the improved performances of the participant (Lewis and Thorhill, 1994). Evaluation process completes the cycle of training/learning; it is the key role of quality control on the program by assessing and providing on its effectiveness, the achievement of the objectives set by both facilitator and learner, and whether it satisfy the needs of the related parties, both organizational and individual (Noe, 2003; Kirkpartrick,1998; Bramley,1991). In order to determine whether a training or program is effective, a good evaluation schema needs to look into of the relationships of instructional content to work place needs, instructor performance, trainee’s or learner’s achievement and the application of acquired knowledge and skills on the job, and determine if the program should be continued, expanded, modified based on labor market demand and graduate placement (Campbell, 1998). The most common form of evaluation is based on the four levels of evaluation: reactions of participants, learning results, job behavior and returns for the organization (Kirkpatrick, 1998). Good evaluation system should be able to prove that the program achieves the important skills, knowledge and attitude objectives, the knowledge is used effectively on the job, and provides valuable and cost effective organizational benefits.The most fundamental issue of evaluation is whether the learner has learnt in the training or program; the transfer of learning which reflects the degree to which the participant effectively apply the knowledge, skills and attitudes gained in training context to the job, and for the transfer to have occurred, learned behavior in the job context must be maintained over a period of time. In this context of formal learning and in formal education, evaluation of learning is most appropriate in of learning outcomes of the adult learners. 3.4 Learning Outcomes 5899507

Development of an individual involves learning, thinking, doing and feeling (Garavan, 1997). From the human resource development’s perspective, adopting learning orientations are most relevant to the context of working adults’ learning. Illeris (2003) describes learning from three dimensions: cognitive, emotional and social–societal dimensions. The context learning outcomes in this paper adopts the five learning orientations: behaviorist, cognitivist, humanist, social learning and constructivist (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999) as the trends of current educational approach now in Malaysia are shifting towards outcome based education. 3.4.1 Behaviorist Orientation Learning brings about desired change in behavior in individuals. Propounded by behavioral scientists (such as Skinner, Thorndike, Watson, Pavlov, et el.) learning is manifested by a change in observable behavior; secondly the environment shapes behavior, what one learns is determined by the elements in the environment; thirdly the principles of continuity and reinforcement. The facilitator’s role in the training is to elicit the desired behavior change in an individual (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). From the behaviorist orientation, it looks into the change in the ability of the adult learner to conduct oneself in a behavioral manner and adapting to the communities of practice, namely: the psychomotor skills and the human senses and its dimensions (Schon,1987). 3.4.2 Cognitive Orientation Perception, insight and meaning are key contributors to cognitivism from Gestalt learning theorists (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Learning is a cognitive phenomenon. This orientation lies with the individual learner while behaviorist lies in the environment. Within the cognitive framework, the emphasis is on what the learners know versus how they behave. This knowing involves the acquisition of new knowledge in the organization; learning is accumulative in nature. The act of learning involves three simultaneous processes: acquisition of new information, transformation of knowledge to make it fit new task, and evaluation on the way we manipulated information is adequate to the task (Knowles, 1984). From the cognitive orientation, the perspective of learning is seen from not knowing to a state of knowhow and knowwhy. 3.4.3 Humanistic orientation The humanistic orientation of learning views on human potential for growth. Rogers (1969) describes learning as: (quote) i. personal involvement where the whole person inclusive of his feelings and cognitive aspects are involved in the learning event; ii. self initiation, even when the impetus or stimuli comes from the outside, the sense of discovery, of reaching out, of grasping and comprehending, comes from within; iii. pervasiveness, learning makes a difference in the behavior, attitudes and perhaps even the personality of the learner; iv. evaluation by the learner, the learner knows whether the learning meets personal needs, whether it leads toward what the individual wants to know; v. its essence in meanings, when such learning takes place, the element of meanings to the learner is built into the whole experience. From this orientation, the learning perspective will be autonomous, growth oriented, develops confidence as a worker, developing sense of responsibility and commitment in participating in daily tasks. From the context of human development, it expands the worker’s potential to take a future role within the organization (Noe, 2003). 3.4.4 Social Learning The fourth orientation is social learning. Learning occurs through the observation of people in one’s immediate environment. Learning is a function of the interaction of the person, the environment and the behavior (Merriam and Cafarella, 1999). Learning is a continuous lifelong process resulting from acting and doing tasks through observations and direct interactions. Participation in everyday work activities assist in developing the knowledge required for work performance, and this knowing is distributed across social environment. Therefore, learning is not only ongoing in our everyday thinking and acting; it is mediated by the circumstances in which individual act (Billet, 2000).

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Learning new skills or behavior comes from directly experiencing the consequences of using behavior or skills or the process of observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior (Noe, 2003).

3.5 Summary Integrating the literature review on adult education, adult learning and their learning processes, it can be summarized that the characteristics of adult learner consists of motivation-related constructs (motivation to learn, readiness to learn and self directed learning) and ability constructs (knowledge acquisition, situation identification and personal capacity to transfer (transfer learning) which can be termed as self efficacy. The common factors why working adults pursue continuing education can be categorized into: a) intrinsic factors such as cognitive needs, self-development needs, personal aspiration needs; b) extrinsic factors such career (job), income, social needs, cognitive interest, family , opportunity and professional advancement. 4.0

CONCLUSION

Working adults pursue continuing education not only to seek for new knowledge, nor to improve themselves towards personal development and self actualization, but the current economic and development scenarios such as learning opportunities, advancement in technology, social and family pressures, job and organizational needs motivate them to engage in continual learning. Working adults possess rich background of work and life experiences; hence they are self directed learners whose needs must be understood by facilitators when facilitating them. Adult teaching and learning is more challenging despite facing the work challenges and organizational commitments at their work places; their learning processes can be enriching for both facilitator and learner, and their learning outcomes are attainable with respect to the formal educational structure and meeting the program objectives towards becoming quality, mature and experienced graduates.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Many thanks and appreciations go to the respective proponents, experts and writers especially in the field of adult education, learning theories and principles mentioned in this text; as well as the professors in Universiti PUTRA Malaysia for their teaching and guidance in extension education and professional studies. Thanks are also extended to the management and staff of Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam for their endless in providing and teaching the off campus part time working adult learners over the years.

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