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FALL 2008
PSYCHOLOGY NOTES
Psychology Notes: OCT. 9th 2008 *Psychology began as a branch of philosophy. It was considered a science after the Scientific Method began to be applied. *1879-Leipzig, : “Father of Psychology” Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychological laboratory to study conscious experience. *Edward Titchner -Structuralism: analyzing sensations and personal experience into basic elements *William James -Functionalism: how behavior and mental abilities help people adept to their environments. >Charles Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection: evolution favors those plants and animals best suited to their living environment. Behaviorism *Behaviorism is the study of observable behavior. (Watson) *Conditioned Response (Pavolv) -A learned reaction to particular stimuli. *Actions are controlled by rewards and punishments (Skinner) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Gestalt Psychology *Emphasizes the study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis into parts. -Gestalt in German for “pattern”. -“THE WHOLE IS GREATER THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS” Psychoanalysis *Sigmund Freud
-Exploring the unconscious mind >ID >Ego >Super ego Fun fact: Freud developed the first form of “talk therapy” Humanistic Psychology *States humans exist on free will. Concerned with human experience, problems, potentials, and ideas. *Self-actualization: The ongoing process of fully developing one’s personal potential (Maslow). The Biological Perspective *Explains human behavior in of underlying biological principals The Psychological Perspective *Behavior is shaped by psychological processes occurring at the level of the individual The Sociocultural Perspective *Focuses on the importance of social and cultural contexts influencing the behavior of individuals. Critical thinking *An ability to evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, synthesize, and reflect. The Scientific Method *A form of critical thinking based on careful measurement and controlled observation. *6 Steps: 1. Observe 2. Define the problem 3. Propose the Hypothesis 4. Gather the evidence and test the hypothesis
5. Publish results 6. Build theories *Creating a Hypothesis -An educated guess between 2 or more variables >Operational Definition: Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. >A theory is a system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations The Psychology Experiment *An experiment is a formal trial undertaken to confirm or disconfirm a hypothesis about cause and effect. -Directly vary a condition you think might affect behavior. -Create 2 or more groups of subjects. These subjects should be a like in every way except the condition you a varying. -Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior. *A variable is any condition that changes or can be made to change; a measure, event, or state that may vary. -Independent variable: conditions altered or varied by the experimenter. Independent variables are suspected causes for difference in behavior. -Dependent Variable: measures the results of the experiment. They reveal the effects that the Ind. Vars. have on behavior. -Extraneous Variables: Conditions that a researcher wishes to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment. *The Experimental Group: those exposed to the Independent Variable. *The Control Group: those exposed to all the same conditions but NOT the Independent variable. *Random assignment: participants have an equal chance of getting into either group.
Non-Experimental Research Methods *Naturalistic Observation- study in natural setting(s). *Correlation Method- discover relationships between events. *Clinical Method- study psychological problems and therapies in clinical settings. *Survey Method: Use of questionnaires and polls Naturalistic Observation *Actively observing subjects in their natural environment. -Limitations: >Observer effect >Observer bias >Anthropomorphic error (when observing animals) Correlation Coefficients *+1.00 and -1.00 -If the amount is closer to zero, the association between the two measures is weak or nonexistent. -If the correlation is +1.00, a perfect positive relationship exists; if it is -1.00, a perfect negative relationship has been discovered >Positive correlation: a statistical relationship is which increase/decrease in one measure are matched by increase/decrease in the other >Negative correlation: a statistical relationship in which increases in one measure are matched by decrease in another. >Does not demonstrate causation Clinical Method *Case Studies -An in-debt focus on all aspects of a single person >Phineas Gage: frontal lobe and lobotomy
>The Genain sisters -Limitations >Little or no control is possible; no control group for comparison. >Subjective interpretation is often necessary. Survey Method *Use of the public to answer psychological questions. -A representative sample: a small, randomly selected part of a larger population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole population. >A population is an entire group of animals or people belonging to a particular category. -Limitations >People may not actually do what they say; therefore, responses may be inaccurate.
Chapter 2 Oct. 14th 2008 The Nervous System *2 Parts of the Nervous System -Central Nervous System (CNS) >The central “computer” of the nervous system >The Spinal Chord -Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) >Carries information to and from the CNS ~Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): serves the internal organs, glands, and body
~Somatic Nervous System (SNS): carries messages to and from sense organs and skeletal muscles *Hemispheres and Lobes -The Cerebrum: 2 large hemispheres cover the upper part of the brain. Each side of the brain controls functions on the opposing side of the body. - Occipital lobe: rear of the brain. Processes primary visual information. - Temporal lobes: located low on each side of the brain. Processes auditory information and language. - Parietal lobe: Mid Brain. s body sensations (touch, temperature, pressure, etc.) - Frontal lobe: Front of brain. Higher mental abilities, reasoning, and planning. *Sub cortex- life sustaining functions -Forebrain >Hypothalamus: controls basic motives such as sex, eating, drinking, sleep. >Limbic System: Primitive core of the brain (fear system, memories) -Midbrain (connector) -Hindbrain >Controls vital life functions (breathing, heart rate, swallowing, etc.) Endocrine System *Pituitary gland: Regulates growth *Pineal Gland: Controls body rhythms and sleep cycles (melatonin) *Thyroid Gland: Controls metabolism *Adrenal Gland: Fight or flight response, secondary source of sex hormones
Chapter 3 Human Development *Heredity (“nature”): What you inherit from your parents (eye color and hair color) -DNA: recessive genes vs. dominate genes *Environment (“nurture”): What you obtain from the world around you -Congenital Problems (birth defects not disorders) -Deprivation vs. Enrichment Babies (“Neonates”) *Grasping reflex- Grasping tightly to items placed in hands. *Rooting reflex- reflexively turn head when touched on the cheek. *Sucking reflex- reflexively suck to obtain food when touched on the lips. *Moro reflex-Make hugging motion when startled by a loud noise Baby Facts *At 6 months, babies can recognize categories of objects that differ in shape and color. *By 9 months, babies can tell the difference between different animals (bird vs. dog). *By I year, babies can see as well as their parents. TEST HINT: Pay special attention to the motor development cycle in figure 3.8 p. 107 in that text. *Social development is important to the child’s maturation. This is how the child creates attachments. -Attachment is the close emotional bond that babies form with their primary caregivers. >Secure attachment >Insecure attachment *Parenting styles
-Authoritarian (rigid rules, demands, strict obedience) -Overly permissive (little guidance, laissez-faire) -Authoritative (firm and consistent guidance combined with love and affection) Cognitive Development *Piaget’s 4 stages of a child’s development -Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) >The child develops better motor and sensory coordination >Learn object performance (objects exists even when not in plain sight) -Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) >The child’s symbolic thinking and language strengthens. >Child becomes egocentric; they are the world. -Concrete Operations stage (7-11 years) >The child begins to think more logical; yet still concrete. >Child begins to understand the concept of conversation. -Formal Operations stage (11 years and up) >Abstract thinking emerges >Full adult intellectual ability is attained *Adolescence- culturally defined period between childhood and adulthood. -Not to be confused with puberty! -Time when one develops a clear sense of right and wrong. Kohlberg’s Level Of Moral Development *Preconventional Level
-Moral thinking guided by consequences of actions: Punishment, rewards, or mutual benefit. >Avoiding punishment >Self-interest *Conventional Level -Moral thinking guided by desire to please others or to follow accepted authority, rules, and values. >Avoiding disapproval >Traditional morality of authority *Post-conventional Level -Moral thinking guided by self-chosen ethical principles that are general, comprehensive and universal. *Childhood and Society (1963) by Erik Erikson -Suggest we all face a crisis at each stage of life. >He referred to these “crisis” as psychological dilemmas: a conflict between personal impulses and the social world. *Stage one: -First year of life: Trust vs. Mistrust -Being loved, touched, and nurtured by parents (trust) vs. being ignored or rejected by parents (mistrust). *Stage two: 1-3 years: Autonomy vs. Shame -Encouraged to be independent (autonomy) vs. being ridiculed or overprotected (shame). *Stage three: 3-5: Initiative vs. Guilt -Parent reinforce making plans and following through (initiative) vs. severe criticism or prevention of self-goals (guilt). *Stage four: 6-12: Industry vs. Inferiority -Praise for success in school (industry) vs. being told work is messy or inadequate (inferiority). *Stage five: Adolescence: Identity vs. Role confusion
-Building a strong sense of self (identity) vs. Low self-esteem, low self worth (role confusion). *Stage six: Young adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation -Sharing a meaningful relationship with another (intimacy) vs. feeling alone in life (isolation). *Stage seven: Middle adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation -Interest in guiding the next generation (Generativity) vs. stagnant concern with one’s own needs (stagnation). *Stage eight: Late adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair -Ability to view life with acceptance and satisfaction (integrity) vs. regret and/or remorse over one’s life (despair) Five Stages of death and dying (Elisabeth Kubler-Ross) *Denial and isolation -“this is a mistake,” “I’m alone in this.” “This cannot be.” *Anger -“Why me?” *Bargaining -Making a deal with God- “Just let me live a little while longer.” *Depression *Acceptance
Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception *Sensation refers to the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight sound, and smell. This information is sent to our brains in raw form where perception comes into play. Perception is the way we interpret these sensations and therefore make sense of everything around us. Psychophysics
*Psychophysics can be defined as, the Vitreous study of humourhow physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience. everything else Aqueous Sensation humourprotects *Sensation is the process by which our senses gather information and send itCornea-Light to the brain. through eye -Room temp, brightness of the lights, someone talking, a distant train, or the smell of perfume. -We don’t notice radio waves, x-rays, or the microscopic parasites crawling on our skin. -Note: We don’t sense all the odors around us or taste every individual spice in our gourmet dinner. Absolute Threshold *The absolute threshold is the point where something becomes noticeable to our senses. -The absolute threshold is the point at which a stimulus goes from undetectable to detectable to our senses. Difference Threshold *The difference threshold is the amount of change needed for us to recognize that a change occurred. -This change is referred to as the Just Noticeable Difference. *The visual system works on sensing and perceiving light waves. Light waves vary in their length and amplitude. -Wave length (also referred to as frequency, since the longer a wave, the less often/quickly it occurs) – affects color perception (ex: red=approx 700, yellow=approx 600). -Wave aptitude (this is the size/height of the wave) - affects brightness perception. STRUCTURE OF THE EYE-pg.156
Retina- receives the info about light using rods and cones (Contains rods cones)
Pupil-controls amount of light that enters the eye
Iris- gives your eye color
Lens- focuses light onto the retina Optic nervetransfer info to brain
The photoreceptors- Rods and cones are considered photoreceptors *Cones daytime vision- perceive surrounding environment as accurately as possible (daylight vision and color). *Rods: Night vision and peripheral vision 3 Visual Problems *Myopia (aka: nearsightedness) -Those with myopia see nearby objects but distant objects appear blurred. With myopia, the eyeball is too long, or the cornea is too steep. *Hyperopia (aka: far-sightedness) -Those with hyperopia have an inability to focus on nearby objects and in extreme cases unable to focus on objects at any distance. With hyperopia, the cornea is too flat or the eye is too short. *Astigmatism
-Defects in the cornea, lens, or eye that cause some areas of vision to be out of focus. *We can see many colors, but only have 3 types of cones that receive information about color. We have cones that pick up light waves for red, green, and blue. Color Vision Theories *Trichromatic Theory- this theory indicates that we can receive 3 types of colors and that the cones vary the ratio of neural activity (like TV). The ratio of each color to the other then determines the exact color that we see. *Opponent-Process Theory- color perception depends on the reception of pairs of antagonist colors. Each receptor can only work with one color at a time so the opponent color in the pair is blocked out. Pairs=redgreen, blueyellow, blackwhite (lightdark). -After images Structure of the Ear-pg 164, 166
*Cochlea- excited hair like vibrations allow hearing sending message to nerve *The ear is the sense organ that produces sound
-Sound is a form of energy that moves through air, water, and other matter, in waves of pressure. >Place theory: higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea
Sense of Smell “Olfation”
Sense of Taste “Gustation” *Bitter, Salty, Sweet, Sour
Oct. 23rd- Perception *Perception refers to interpretation of what we take in through our senses.
*Perceptual constancy refers to our ability to see things differently without having to reinterpret the objects properties. There are typically three consistencies discussed, including size, shape, and brightness. *Size constancy refers to our ability to see objects as maintaining the same size even when our distance from them makes things appear larger or smaller. *Shape constancy allows us to perceive that plate as still being a circle even though the angle from which we view it appears to distort the shape. *Brightness constancy refers to our ability to recognize that color remains the same regardless of how it looks under different levels of light. *Much of our understanding of how we perceive things comes from Gestalt Psychology. *Gestalt Principles of perceptual Organization -Figure-ground-this is the fundamental way we organize visual perceptions. When we look at an object, we see that object (figure) and the background (ground) on which it sits. -We attempt to organize this information into certain groups. This allows us to interpret the information completely without unneeded repetition. >The Gestalt principals of grouping include four major types: similarity, proximity, continuity, and closure.
*Similarity refers to our tendency to group things together based upon how similar to each other they are. *Proximity, or nearness, refers to group things based on how close they are to one another. *Continuity refers to our tendency to see patterns and therefore perceive things as belonging together if they form some type of continuous problem. *Closure refers to our tendency to complete familiar objects that have gaps in them.
Depth Perception *The ability to see 3D space and to accurately judge distance. *We determine distance using 2 different cues: Monocular and binocular. -Monocular Cues: those cues that can be seen using only one eye. They include size, texture, overlapping, shading, height, and clarity. -Binocular Cues: those depth cues in which both eyes are needed to perceive. There are two important binocular cues, convergence and retinal disparity. *Monocular cues: -Relative size refers to the fact that larger images are perceived as closer to us, especially if the two images are of the same object. -The texture gradient of objects tend to become smoother as the object gets farther away, suggesting that more detailed textured objects are closer. -Due to overlap, those objects covering part of another object is perceived closer. -The Shading or shadows of objects can give a clue to their distance, allowing closer objects to cast longer shadows which will overlap objects which are farther away. -Objects that are closer to the bottom of our visual field are seen as closer to us due to our perception of the horizon, where higher (height) means farther away, therefore, cleaner or crisper images tend to be perceived as closer (clarity). *Binocular cues: -Convergence refers to the fact that the closer an object, the more inward our eyes need to turn in order to focus. The farther our eyes converge; the closer an object appears to be. -Since our eyes see two images that are then sent to our brains for interpretation, the distance between these two images, or their retinal disparity, provides another cue regarding the distance of the object. Perceptual Learning
*Changes in perception that can be attributed to prior experience; a result of changes in how the brain processes sensory information. *Hallucination- an imaginary sensation (seeing, hearing, smelling something that does not exist) *Illusion- a distorted perception -Muller-Layer Illusion Chapter 5: States of Consciousness *Consists of all the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of at any instant -Altered states of consciousness -Walking consciousness *Altered states of consciousness: changes occur in the quality and patter of mental activity. -Drug, alcohol, long distance running, meditation, hypnosis. -Sleep: Sleep is an innate biological rhythm that can never be ignored >The measurement of eye movement during sleep is used to divide sleep into the two broad types of Rapid Eye Movement (REM) and Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep. >Sleep proceeds in cycles of REM and the four stages of NREM, the order normally being: Stages 1>2>3>4>3>2>REM +In humans this cycle is on average 90-110 min, with a greater amount of stages 3 and 4 early in the night and more REM later in the night. +Drugs can suppress certain stages of sleep that exhibits loss of consciousness but does not fulfill its physiological functions. *Stages of Sleep: NREM - s for 75-80% of total sleep time in normal human adults -In NREM sleep, there is relatively little dreaming.
-Non-REM encomes four stages; stages 1 and 2 are considered ‘light sleep’, and 3 and 4 ‘deep sleep’ or slow-wave sleep, SWS. *NREM Stage 1: -Light sleep-heart rate slows, breathing becomes slightly irregular, and muscles relax. -More hypnotic state, drowsy. *NREM Stage 2: -Sleep deepens, body temperature drops. *NREM Stage 3: -New large and slow brain waves appear. -Sleep terrors, nightmares, bedwetting, sleepwalking occurs *NREM Stage 4: -Deep sleep reached within 1 hour. *Stages of Sleep: REM -In adult humans, typically occupies 20-25% of total sleep, about 90-120 minutes of a night’s sleep. -During a normal night of sleep, humans usually experience about 4 or 5 periods of REM sleep: they are quite short at the beginning of the night and longer toward the end. -Most people tend to wake, or experience a period of very light sleep, for a short time immediately after a bout of REM. *Sleep Disturbances: serious risk to health and happiness -Insomnia: The inability to fall asleep and stay asleep. -Sleepwalking and sleep talking: usually takes place during stage 3 and stage 4 of NREM sleep. -Nightmares and Night Terrors >Nightmares are bad dreams that occur in REM sleep >Night terrors cause total panic, hallucinations, and high physiological arousal (NREM)
>Narcolepsy: Sudden irresistible sleep attacks; May last a few minutes to ½ hour; Victim sleeps while standing, talking or driving. -Sleep Apnea: Breathing stops for periods of 20 seconds to 2 minutes causing person to gulp for air -Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)-crib death: Affects 1 of 500 babies per year; baby stops breathing after apnea. *Dreaming -Most people dream 4-5 times a night. -Most associated with REM sleep >In Children, REM may stimulate the developing brain. process
>In adults, REM may prevent sensory deprivation and help emotional events.
+Activism-Synthesis Hypothesis: Several parts of the brain are activated during REM sleep, and the cortex of the brain synthesizes this activity into stories and visual images +Freud(Psychodynamic Dream Theory) *Other altered states of consciousness -Hypnosis (Greek for sleep): Thought to be “a trance-like state that resembles sleep but is induced by a person whose suggestions are readily accepted by the subject” -Meditation: mental discipline by which one attempts to get beyond the conditioned, “thinking” mind into a deeper state of relaxation or awareness. It often involves turning attention to a single point of reference. -Sensory deprivation: deliberate reduction or removal of stimuli form one or more of the senses. Though short periods of sensory deprivation can be relaxing, extended deprivation can result in extreme anxiety, hallucinations, and depression. *Psychoactive drugs: affect attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, and/or perception. -Effects on the brain:
>Increase neurotransmitters (stimulant) >Slows or blocks stimulation (depressant) *Stimulants (“Uppers”): Temporarily increase alertness and awareness -Increase the activity of either the sympathetic nervous system, the central nervous system (CNS) or both. >Sympathetic Nervous System: becomes more active during times of stress. Its actions during the stress response compromise the flight or flight response >CNS: It contains the majority of the nervous system, and consists of the brain, and the spinal chord. -Stimulants include: Amphetamines, caffeine and nicotine *Depressants (“Downers”): A chemical agent that diminishes the function or activity of a specific part of the body like a sedative. -Many depressants acting on the CNS do so by increasing the activity of a particular neurotransmitter known as gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA). >CNS depressants require a period of adaptation. Typically, initial side effects include slurred speech and alcohol is a downer. *Hallucinogens: merely amplify familiar states of mind, but rather induce experiences that are qualitatively different from those of ordinary consciousness -Hashish, LSD, P, and Marijuana *Addiction: -Physical dependence: A person compulsively uses a drug to maintain bodily comfort. >Drug tolerance: reduced response to a drug >Withdrawal symptoms: When physical illness follows removal of a drug. -Psychological dependence: A person feels that a drug is necessary to maintain feelings of comfort or wellbeing. Chapter 6
*Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience -Merely repeating a response will not necessarily produce learning -Reinforcement is the key to learning- Reinforcement is any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur. *Antecedents: events that precede a response- classical conditioning *Consequences: effects that follow a response- operant conditioning *Classical Conditioning- a form of learning in which reflex responses are associate with new stimuli -Based on what happens before a response is made (antecedent) >Involves ive behaviors >A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that leads to an unconditioned response. elicit the response.
>Learning happens when the neutral stimulus is able to same response, now called the conditioned
*“Unconditioned” simply means that the stimulus and the response are naturally connected. They just came that way, hard wired -“stimulus” simply means the thing that starts it while “response” means the thing that ends it. A stimulus elictts and a response is elicited. * “Conditioning” means the opposite of unconditioned. It means that we are trying to associate, connect, bond, link something new with the old relationship. And we want this new thing to elicit (rather that be elicited) so it will be a stimulus not a response. *Summary: -Unconditioned Stimulus: a thing that can already elicit a response. _Unconditioned Response: a thing that is already elicited by a stimulus.
-Unconditioned Relationship: an existing stimulus-response connection -Conditioning stimulus: a new stimulus we deliver the same time we give the old stimulus -Conditioned Relationship: the new stimulus-response relationship we created by associating a new stimulus with an old stimulus. *This is the essence of classical conditioning. It really is that simple. You start with two things that are already connected with each other (food and salivation). Then you add a third thing (Bell)… Operant conditioning*Classical conditioning forms an association between two stimuli. Operant conditioning forms an association between a behavior and a consequence. (it also called response-stimulus or RS conditioning because it forms an association between the animal’s response [behavior] and the stimulus that follows [consequence]) Four possible Consequences *Something Good can start or be presented (positive) *Something Good can end or be taken away (negative) *Something Bad can start or be presented (negative) *Something Bad can end or be taken away (positive) Reinforcement/Punishment *Anything that increases a behavior- makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger, or makes it more likely to occur- is termed a reinforce. *Anything that decreases a behavior- makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or makes it less likely to occur- is termed a punisher. BF SKINNER Positive Negative
Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
Punishment Positive punishment Negative Punishment
Partial Reinforcement and Stimulus Control *Ratio Schedules-based on number of responses -Fixed ration and –variable ratio *Interval Schedules- based on time elapsed -Fixed interval and –variable interval Chapter 7:Memory Memory is defined as the mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving information. *Encoding: Converting information into a form in which it will be retained in memory. *Storage: Holding information in storage for later use. *Retrieval: Recovering information from storage in memory. Memory Systems *Sensory Memory -s incoming information from the environment through our senses for a few seconds or less. -Iconic Memory: an exact copy of what you see (less than 1 sec) -Echoic Memory: An exact copy of what you hear (less than 4 sec.) *Short-Term Memory: holds a small amount of memory to be used immediately. -Limited capacity of information -Sensitive to interruption and interference -A working of sorts *Features of Short-Term Memory -STM’s capacity is typically about 7 bits of information (+2). STM’s duration is typically 12-18 seconds. >Chunking: Reorganizing information into chunk. (phone numbers) >Rehearsal: Repeating information
*Long-Term Memory-Acts as lasting, nearly limitless, storehouse for knowledge. -Stored on basis of meaning and importance. *Features of Long-Term Memory -The brain does not store memories in one unified structure. Instead different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain. -LTM is typically divided into two major headings: declarative memory (facts) and procedural memory (skill). -Declarative memory >All memories that are consciously available >Episodic memory refers to memory for specific events each time >Semantic memory refers to knowledge about the external such as the function of a pencil
world
-Procedural Memory- the use of objects or movements of the body (using a pencil or riding a bike) Measuring Memory *Memories from past experience that are consciously brought to mind are explicit. Memories outside of awareness are implicit. -Explicit: Recall, Recognition, and Relearning -Implicit: Priming Forgetting *Encoding Failure, Repression (memory you repress), Memory Decay, Suppression (porously forgetting), Cue-Dependent Forgetting, StateDependant Learning, Interference Improving your memory *Spaced practice, whole vs. Part learning, Organization, Overlearning, and Memory cues Chapter 8: Intelligence
Intelligence- the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment. *General mental ability (g-factor) -Reasoning -Problem-solving -Knowledge -Memory -Successful adaptation to one’s surrounding G-actor *Fluid Intelligence- consists of reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing. It involves such skills as those requiring spatial and visual imagery and is generally believed to be much less affected by experience and education that crystallized intelligence. *Crystallized Intelligence- concerns the application of knowledge to problem solving. It includes abilities such as reasoning and verbal and numerical skills and is generally believed to be affected by experience and formal education. Intelligence Test *Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale- 5th edition -A standardized test that assesses intelligence and cognitive abilities in children and adults aged 2-23 -Tests intelligence across four areas: fluid (verbal) reasoning, quantitative reasoning, spatial/visual reasoning, and working memory. >15 subtests, including vocabulary, comprehension, verbal absurdities, pattern analysis, matrices, paper folding, cutting, copying, quantitative, number series, equation building, memory for sentences, memory for digits, memory for objects, and bead memory. IQ= Intelligence Quotient *Mental age (average intellectual performance) *Chronological age- MA/CA multiply 100=IQ
*Standard Deviations (points above or below the mean) *Mean (Average) Intelligence Test *Weschler Scales -Wechsler Preschool and primary scale of intelligence (WPPSI) -Wechsler intelligence Scale for Children- Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) -Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- Third Edition (WAIS-III) *Measures on three main scales: -Verbal IQ -Performance IQ -Full-scale IQ *Measure four subscales -Verbal comprehension -Perceptual organization -Working memory -Processing standard Thinking *Cognition is the process by which we mentally process information. -Images- pictures like mental reproductions -Concepts- ideas that represent categories of objects or events -Language- words or symbols and rules for combining them *Images- mental nonverbal representations of sensory experiences, affect our thinking and learning, particularly when dealing with physical skills and certain nonverbal materials such as mathematical formulas. -For example, the images we hold of a champion’s suburb golf strokes may govern our own attempts to develop similar skills.
*Concepts- the mental categories used to organize events and objects, are often arranged in hierarchical order from general to more specific -For example, organism, animal, vertebrate, quadruped, dog, collie. Such categories help people to understand new information. *Language- is a system of communication using gestures, sounds, or written symbols that have significance for those who use the language and follow its rules -Phonemes: the smallest unit of sound in a language. >Have no meaning they acquire it when combined -Morphemes- smallest unit of meaning in a spoken language >The word overcoat is compressed of two morphemes. *Semantics- refers to the study of meaning in a language *Syntax- are the rules used when forming words into sentences *Grammar- refers to the rules for combining language units to form meaningful speech and writing *Sign language (gestured language) *Problem Solving -Trial and Error- Guessing or randomly trying an approach (least effective) -Information Retrieval- retrieval of pertinent information from long-term memory -Algorithms- the methodical development of a step-by-step method to solve a problem. -Heuristics- rules of thumb to deal with a problem, sometimes based on information easily available in memory. Creative Thinking * Convergent thinking: thinking directed toward discovery of a single established correct answer; conventional thinking *Divergent thinking: thinking that produces many ideas or alternatives; a major element in original or creative thought.
Stages of Creative Thought *Orientation *Preparation *Incubation *Illumination *Verification Chapter 9: Motivation *Motivation is the ways in which our actions are initiated, sustained, directed, and terminated. *A model of motivation -Need Drive Response Goal Need Reduction Need again (p372) Three Categories of Motives *Primary Motives- Based on biological needs for food, water, air, etc. to ensure survival of the individual. *Stimulus Motives- Our needs for stimulation and information appear to be innate, but not strictly necessary for survival. *Secondary motives- based on learned needs, drives, and goals. Hunger Thirst Pain and Sex *Hunger- a physical response to a mental need -As the brain receives signals (via the hypothalamus) that the body needs nourishment. >Emotional eating, yo-yo dieting, eating disorders +Anorexia Nervosa, bulimia Nervosa *Thirst- 2 types -Extracellular. Thirst develops when there is a loss of fluid volume between body cells. (Perspiration) -Intracellular. Thirst develops when there is a loss of fluid from within body cells. (Eating salts)
*Pain- An episodic drive that prompts us to avoid damage to the bodypartially learned. *Sex- sex drive refers to ones motivation to engage in sexual behavior. -Sex in not necessary for individual survival. It is necessary for the survival of a species. -What attracts us? Pheromones. >Estrogen (women) Androgens (men) -What can “kill” a sex drive: alcohol, cocaine, LSD, barbiturates, marijuana. Arousal, Achievement, and Growth Needs *Arousal- Theory: we try to keep arousal at a workable level *Achievement: Learned motives are acquired as a part of growing up in a society or culture. *Growth: Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs places growth needs at the top. Emotion and Physical Arousal *Emotion is characterized by physiological arousal, subjective feelings, and change in behavior -Reactions to threats are innate. Caused by arousal of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). >Fight or Flight (sympathetic) >Parasympathetic rebound (aka: sudden death) *There are 8 primary emotions -Fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, trust -They are different from moods (mood is a low intensity long lasting emotional state.)
Chapter 11 Health Physchology *Concered with understanding how biology, behavior, and social context influence health and illness -Clinical health (CIHP) -Occupational health (OHP) -Public health (PHP) -Community health (CoHP) -Critical health psychology (CrHP) Stress *Mental and physical condition that occurs when we adapt to the environment. *Origins of actual stress may vary with the individual, but in general, stress arises from frustration, life changes, conflict, lack of control, and uncertainty. *The amount of stress we feel depends on how we perceive the situation; threat or a thrill? -Primary appraisal- is this situation relevant to us? -Secondary appraisal- what can we do about it? *There are 2 ways to cope with stress -Problem-focused coping: facing the problem head-on
-Emotion-focused coping: control of emotions through redirection *Conflict occurs when contradictory choices must be made -Approach-approach conflict occurs when an individual must choose between 2 equally desirable goals -Avoidance-Avoidance conflict- occurs when an individual must choose between 2 equally undesirable goals or activities -Approach-Avoidance conflict is the resulting of having concomitant but incompatible goals. Frustation *Frustration occurs when obstacles prevent us from reaching desired goals. *Frustration can motivate aggression *When coping with frustration: -Identify source of frustration: avoid misplaced aggression -Can it be changed? -If it can be changed, are the efforts worth it?: Distinguish between real barriers and imagined ones. *Anxiety is apprehension toward an unclear threat- similar to fear. -Defenses: Defense Mechanism is a habitual and often unconscious psychological process used to reduce anxiety (table 11.4 in text) -Learned Helplessness: an acquired inability to overcome obstacles and avoid aversive stimuli (even in the face of power) -Depression: emotional problem with marked features of powerlessness, despondency, and overwhelmed helplessness Suicide *4x as many men commit suicide then women. -Male suicides are typically more lethal due to their methods of choice. -Women tend to use drugs more often
*In the U.S. Native Americans have the highest suicide rate, followed closely by Caucasians. -With in the global community, suicide rates are highest in aboriginal people of Australian and New Zealand *Suicide is the second largest cause of death among college-aged students *Suicide rates increase with advancing age. -More than half of all suicide victims are over 45 y/o (White males 65+ are particularly at risk) *Causes: there isn’t one major cause for suicide, but there are factors. -Alcohol abuse, depression, or a mood disorder, aggressive behavior, extreme failure, prior suicide attempt, family history. -Of every 10 suicides, 8 give warnings >Withdrawal, giving away items, change in personality, preoccupations with death, death imagery art, depression/ hopelessness *An estimated 2/3 of all suicide attempts are made by people who do not really want to die -Only 3-5% of suicide cases involve people who really want to die. -Suicidal behavior is a cry for help >Establish a rapport with the person, seek help, “are you thinking of suicide?” be vigilant in the help of your friend
Chapter 13 Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis *Psychoanalysis (Freud) -Created over 100 years ago -Stressed neurosis and hysteria as effects of repressed memories, motives, and conflicts. -Common techniques used include >Free association
>Dream analysis >Analysis of transference Insight Therapies *Humanistic Therapies: -Client centered therapy >Non-directive, allowing the patient to lead the therapy >Goal: Uncover the “true self” hidden behind a screen of defenses -Existential Therapy >Focuses on the problem of existence >Goal: Emphasizes the ability to make your own personal choices- you choose to be the person you want to be. -Gestalt Therapy >Integration of fragmented experiences into a whole connected
>Goal: Helps rebuild thinking, feeling, and acting into wholes
Behavioral Therapy *Use learning principles to make constructive changes in behavior patterns -Behavior modification refers to any use of classical or operant conditioning to directly alter human behavior >Aversion Therapy and Desensitization *Operant and Cognitive Therapies -Operant Therapies: use of operant conditioning (positive/negative reinforcemtn) -Cognitive Therapies: help change thinking patterns that lead to troublesome emotions or behaviors >Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)- Core irrational beliefs (You must treat me fairly. Conditions must be the way I want them to be)
Other Therapies *Group Therapy: Psychodrama, Family Therapy, Group Awareness Training *Medical Therapies: Psychopharmacology, Electroshock, and Psychosurgery *Self-management (thought stopping) Psychotherapy *Core factors: Therapeutic alliance, safe, confidential setting for catharsis, clients have a new perspective about themselves and their situation *Basic Counseling skills: Active listening, clarify problem, focus on feelings, avoid giving advice, accept the person’s frame of reference, use of silence, reflection of thoughts and feelings, ask open-ended questions, maintain confidentiality
Chapter 12 Psychopathology *The Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental Disorders (DSM_IV_TR) -Axis I- Clinical Disorders -Axis II-Personality Disorders, Mental Retardation -Axis III- General Medical Conditions -Axis IV- Psychosocial and Environmental Problems -Axis V- Global Assessment of Functioning *Normal refers to socially acceptable. Things that fall outside of what’s socially acceptable is abnormal -Subjective discomfort-Disordered Behavior-Socially Nonconformity-Statistical abnormality-Insanity Personality Disorders
*Defined by maladaptive personality patterns -Paranoid PD -Schizoid PD –Antisocial PD (Sociopaths) –Borderline PD –Histrionic PD –Narcissistic PD –Avoidant PD –Dependent PD – Obsessive Compulsive PD Stress and Dissociative Disorders *Stress disorders occur when people experience stresses outside the rang of the norm -Acute stress Disorder –Posttraumatic Stress Disorder *Dissociative disorders are a disruption in normal memory, recall, consciousness, identity, or perception. -Amnesia –Fugue –Identity Disorder – Depersonalization Disorder Anxiety Based Disorders *Refers to uncontrollable feelings of apprehension, dread, or uneasiness -Panic Disorders –Phobias –Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder– Somatoform Disorders Psychosis and Delusion Disorders *Psychosis –A loss of with reality -Delusions –hallucinations –Organic Psychosis –Paranoid Psychosis *Delusions Disorders- an unmistakable break with reality that may involve paranoia, jealousy, delusions etc. -Erotomanic type – Jealous type –Somatic type –Grandiose type – Persecutory Schizophrenia *Consists of delusions, hallucinations, inappropriate emotions and thinking, abnormal effects. -Disorganized –Catatonic –Paranoid –Undifferentiated Mood Disorders
*Major disturbance in emotion -Depressive Disorder: exaggeration, prolonged, or seasonal sadness or despondency. >Major Depressive Disorder, Dysthymic Disorder -Bipolar Disorder: depressive disorder that alternates with manic episodes of varying degree >Bipolar I and II Others Disorders *Child Disorders -ADHD –Oppositional Defiant –Conduct Disorders –Learning Disorders *Substance Related Disorders *Somatoform Disorders -Body Dysmorphic Disorder -Hyponchondriasis *Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders -Sexual Dysfunction –Paraphilias >Exhibitionism >Fetishism>Pedophilia>Arousal Disorders>Sexual Pain Disorders *Eating Disorders *Sleeping Disorders -Dysomnias (Insomnia, Narcolepsy) –Parasomnias (Nightmare and night terrors) *Factitious Disorders *Impulsive Control Disorders -Kleptomania –Intermittent Explosive Disorder -Trichotillomania *Adjustment Disorders *Mental Retardation and Pervasive Developemental Disorders
FALL 2008
PSYCHOLOGY NOTES
Psychology Notes: OCT. 9th 2008 *Psychology began as a branch of philosophy. It was considered a science after the Scientific Method began to be applied. *1879-Leipzig, : “Father of Psychology” Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychological laboratory to study conscious experience. *Edward Titchner -Structuralism: analyzing sensations and personal experience into basic elements *William James -Functionalism: how behavior and mental abilities help people adept to their environments. >Charles Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection: evolution favors those plants and animals best suited to their living environment. Behaviorism *Behaviorism is the study of observable behavior. (Watson) *Conditioned Response (Pavolv) -A learned reaction to particular stimuli. *Actions are controlled by rewards and punishments (Skinner) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Gestalt Psychology *Emphasizes the study of thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analysis into parts. -Gestalt in German for “pattern”. -“THE WHOLE IS GREATER THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS” Psychoanalysis *Sigmund Freud
-Exploring the unconscious mind >ID >Ego >Super ego Fun fact: Freud developed the first form of “talk therapy” Humanistic Psychology *States humans exist on free will. Concerned with human experience, problems, potentials, and ideas. *Self-actualization: The ongoing process of fully developing one’s personal potential (Maslow). The Biological Perspective *Explains human behavior in of underlying biological principals The Psychological Perspective *Behavior is shaped by psychological processes occurring at the level of the individual The Sociocultural Perspective *Focuses on the importance of social and cultural contexts influencing the behavior of individuals. Critical thinking *An ability to evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, synthesize, and reflect. The Scientific Method *A form of critical thinking based on careful measurement and controlled observation. *6 Steps: 1. Observe 2. Define the problem 3. Propose the Hypothesis 4. Gather the evidence and test the hypothesis
5. Publish results 6. Build theories *Creating a Hypothesis -An educated guess between 2 or more variables >Operational Definition: Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. >A theory is a system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations The Psychology Experiment *An experiment is a formal trial undertaken to confirm or disconfirm a hypothesis about cause and effect. -Directly vary a condition you think might affect behavior. -Create 2 or more groups of subjects. These subjects should be a like in every way except the condition you a varying. -Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior. *A variable is any condition that changes or can be made to change; a measure, event, or state that may vary. -Independent variable: conditions altered or varied by the experimenter. Independent variables are suspected causes for difference in behavior. -Dependent Variable: measures the results of the experiment. They reveal the effects that the Ind. Vars. have on behavior. -Extraneous Variables: Conditions that a researcher wishes to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment. *The Experimental Group: those exposed to the Independent Variable. *The Control Group: those exposed to all the same conditions but NOT the Independent variable. *Random assignment: participants have an equal chance of getting into either group.
Non-Experimental Research Methods *Naturalistic Observation- study in natural setting(s). *Correlation Method- discover relationships between events. *Clinical Method- study psychological problems and therapies in clinical settings. *Survey Method: Use of questionnaires and polls Naturalistic Observation *Actively observing subjects in their natural environment. -Limitations: >Observer effect >Observer bias >Anthropomorphic error (when observing animals) Correlation Coefficients *+1.00 and -1.00 -If the amount is closer to zero, the association between the two measures is weak or nonexistent. -If the correlation is +1.00, a perfect positive relationship exists; if it is -1.00, a perfect negative relationship has been discovered >Positive correlation: a statistical relationship is which increase/decrease in one measure are matched by increase/decrease in the other >Negative correlation: a statistical relationship in which increases in one measure are matched by decrease in another. >Does not demonstrate causation Clinical Method *Case Studies -An in-debt focus on all aspects of a single person >Phineas Gage: frontal lobe and lobotomy
>The Genain sisters -Limitations >Little or no control is possible; no control group for comparison. >Subjective interpretation is often necessary. Survey Method *Use of the public to answer psychological questions. -A representative sample: a small, randomly selected part of a larger population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole population. >A population is an entire group of animals or people belonging to a particular category. -Limitations >People may not actually do what they say; therefore, responses may be inaccurate.
Chapter 2 Oct. 14th 2008 The Nervous System *2 Parts of the Nervous System -Central Nervous System (CNS) >The central “computer” of the nervous system >The Spinal Chord -Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) >Carries information to and from the CNS ~Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): serves the internal organs, glands, and body
~Somatic Nervous System (SNS): carries messages to and from sense organs and skeletal muscles *Hemispheres and Lobes -The Cerebrum: 2 large hemispheres cover the upper part of the brain. Each side of the brain controls functions on the opposing side of the body. - Occipital lobe: rear of the brain. Processes primary visual information. - Temporal lobes: located low on each side of the brain. Processes auditory information and language. - Parietal lobe: Mid Brain. s body sensations (touch, temperature, pressure, etc.) - Frontal lobe: Front of brain. Higher mental abilities, reasoning, and planning. *Sub cortex- life sustaining functions -Forebrain >Hypothalamus: controls basic motives such as sex, eating, drinking, sleep. >Limbic System: Primitive core of the brain (fear system, memories) -Midbrain (connector) -Hindbrain >Controls vital life functions (breathing, heart rate, swallowing, etc.) Endocrine System *Pituitary gland: Regulates growth *Pineal Gland: Controls body rhythms and sleep cycles (melatonin) *Thyroid Gland: Controls metabolism *Adrenal Gland: Fight or flight response, secondary source of sex hormones
Chapter 3 Human Development *Heredity (“nature”): What you inherit from your parents (eye color and hair color) -DNA: recessive genes vs. dominate genes *Environment (“nurture”): What you obtain from the world around you -Congenital Problems (birth defects not disorders) -Deprivation vs. Enrichment Babies (“Neonates”) *Grasping reflex- Grasping tightly to items placed in hands. *Rooting reflex- reflexively turn head when touched on the cheek. *Sucking reflex- reflexively suck to obtain food when touched on the lips. *Moro reflex-Make hugging motion when startled by a loud noise Baby Facts *At 6 months, babies can recognize categories of objects that differ in shape and color. *By 9 months, babies can tell the difference between different animals (bird vs. dog). *By I year, babies can see as well as their parents. TEST HINT: Pay special attention to the motor development cycle in figure 3.8 p. 107 in that text. *Social development is important to the child’s maturation. This is how the child creates attachments. -Attachment is the close emotional bond that babies form with their primary caregivers. >Secure attachment >Insecure attachment *Parenting styles
-Authoritarian (rigid rules, demands, strict obedience) -Overly permissive (little guidance, laissez-faire) -Authoritative (firm and consistent guidance combined with love and affection) Cognitive Development *Piaget’s 4 stages of a child’s development -Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) >The child develops better motor and sensory coordination >Learn object performance (objects exists even when not in plain sight) -Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) >The child’s symbolic thinking and language strengthens. >Child becomes egocentric; they are the world. -Concrete Operations stage (7-11 years) >The child begins to think more logical; yet still concrete. >Child begins to understand the concept of conversation. -Formal Operations stage (11 years and up) >Abstract thinking emerges >Full adult intellectual ability is attained *Adolescence- culturally defined period between childhood and adulthood. -Not to be confused with puberty! -Time when one develops a clear sense of right and wrong. Kohlberg’s Level Of Moral Development *Preconventional Level
-Moral thinking guided by consequences of actions: Punishment, rewards, or mutual benefit. >Avoiding punishment >Self-interest *Conventional Level -Moral thinking guided by desire to please others or to follow accepted authority, rules, and values. >Avoiding disapproval >Traditional morality of authority *Post-conventional Level -Moral thinking guided by self-chosen ethical principles that are general, comprehensive and universal. *Childhood and Society (1963) by Erik Erikson -Suggest we all face a crisis at each stage of life. >He referred to these “crisis” as psychological dilemmas: a conflict between personal impulses and the social world. *Stage one: -First year of life: Trust vs. Mistrust -Being loved, touched, and nurtured by parents (trust) vs. being ignored or rejected by parents (mistrust). *Stage two: 1-3 years: Autonomy vs. Shame -Encouraged to be independent (autonomy) vs. being ridiculed or overprotected (shame). *Stage three: 3-5: Initiative vs. Guilt -Parent reinforce making plans and following through (initiative) vs. severe criticism or prevention of self-goals (guilt). *Stage four: 6-12: Industry vs. Inferiority -Praise for success in school (industry) vs. being told work is messy or inadequate (inferiority). *Stage five: Adolescence: Identity vs. Role confusion
-Building a strong sense of self (identity) vs. Low self-esteem, low self worth (role confusion). *Stage six: Young adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation -Sharing a meaningful relationship with another (intimacy) vs. feeling alone in life (isolation). *Stage seven: Middle adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation -Interest in guiding the next generation (Generativity) vs. stagnant concern with one’s own needs (stagnation). *Stage eight: Late adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair -Ability to view life with acceptance and satisfaction (integrity) vs. regret and/or remorse over one’s life (despair) Five Stages of death and dying (Elisabeth Kubler-Ross) *Denial and isolation -“this is a mistake,” “I’m alone in this.” “This cannot be.” *Anger -“Why me?” *Bargaining -Making a deal with God- “Just let me live a little while longer.” *Depression *Acceptance
Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception *Sensation refers to the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight sound, and smell. This information is sent to our brains in raw form where perception comes into play. Perception is the way we interpret these sensations and therefore make sense of everything around us. Psychophysics
*Psychophysics can be defined as, the Vitreous study of humourhow physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience. everything else Aqueous Sensation humourprotects *Sensation is the process by which our senses gather information and send itCornea-Light to the brain. through eye -Room temp, brightness of the lights, someone talking, a distant train, or the smell of perfume. -We don’t notice radio waves, x-rays, or the microscopic parasites crawling on our skin. -Note: We don’t sense all the odors around us or taste every individual spice in our gourmet dinner. Absolute Threshold *The absolute threshold is the point where something becomes noticeable to our senses. -The absolute threshold is the point at which a stimulus goes from undetectable to detectable to our senses. Difference Threshold *The difference threshold is the amount of change needed for us to recognize that a change occurred. -This change is referred to as the Just Noticeable Difference. *The visual system works on sensing and perceiving light waves. Light waves vary in their length and amplitude. -Wave length (also referred to as frequency, since the longer a wave, the less often/quickly it occurs) – affects color perception (ex: red=approx 700, yellow=approx 600). -Wave aptitude (this is the size/height of the wave) - affects brightness perception. STRUCTURE OF THE EYE-pg.156
Retina- receives the info about light using rods and cones (Contains rods cones)
Pupil-controls amount of light that enters the eye
Iris- gives your eye color
Lens- focuses light onto the retina Optic nervetransfer info to brain
The photoreceptors- Rods and cones are considered photoreceptors *Cones daytime vision- perceive surrounding environment as accurately as possible (daylight vision and color). *Rods: Night vision and peripheral vision 3 Visual Problems *Myopia (aka: nearsightedness) -Those with myopia see nearby objects but distant objects appear blurred. With myopia, the eyeball is too long, or the cornea is too steep. *Hyperopia (aka: far-sightedness) -Those with hyperopia have an inability to focus on nearby objects and in extreme cases unable to focus on objects at any distance. With hyperopia, the cornea is too flat or the eye is too short. *Astigmatism
-Defects in the cornea, lens, or eye that cause some areas of vision to be out of focus. *We can see many colors, but only have 3 types of cones that receive information about color. We have cones that pick up light waves for red, green, and blue. Color Vision Theories *Trichromatic Theory- this theory indicates that we can receive 3 types of colors and that the cones vary the ratio of neural activity (like TV). The ratio of each color to the other then determines the exact color that we see. *Opponent-Process Theory- color perception depends on the reception of pairs of antagonist colors. Each receptor can only work with one color at a time so the opponent color in the pair is blocked out. Pairs=redgreen, blueyellow, blackwhite (lightdark). -After images Structure of the Ear-pg 164, 166
*Cochlea- excited hair like vibrations allow hearing sending message to nerve *The ear is the sense organ that produces sound
-Sound is a form of energy that moves through air, water, and other matter, in waves of pressure. >Place theory: higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea
Sense of Smell “Olfation”
Sense of Taste “Gustation” *Bitter, Salty, Sweet, Sour
Oct. 23rd- Perception *Perception refers to interpretation of what we take in through our senses.
*Perceptual constancy refers to our ability to see things differently without having to reinterpret the objects properties. There are typically three consistencies discussed, including size, shape, and brightness. *Size constancy refers to our ability to see objects as maintaining the same size even when our distance from them makes things appear larger or smaller. *Shape constancy allows us to perceive that plate as still being a circle even though the angle from which we view it appears to distort the shape. *Brightness constancy refers to our ability to recognize that color remains the same regardless of how it looks under different levels of light. *Much of our understanding of how we perceive things comes from Gestalt Psychology. *Gestalt Principles of perceptual Organization -Figure-ground-this is the fundamental way we organize visual perceptions. When we look at an object, we see that object (figure) and the background (ground) on which it sits. -We attempt to organize this information into certain groups. This allows us to interpret the information completely without unneeded repetition. >The Gestalt principals of grouping include four major types: similarity, proximity, continuity, and closure.
*Similarity refers to our tendency to group things together based upon how similar to each other they are. *Proximity, or nearness, refers to group things based on how close they are to one another. *Continuity refers to our tendency to see patterns and therefore perceive things as belonging together if they form some type of continuous problem. *Closure refers to our tendency to complete familiar objects that have gaps in them.
Depth Perception *The ability to see 3D space and to accurately judge distance. *We determine distance using 2 different cues: Monocular and binocular. -Monocular Cues: those cues that can be seen using only one eye. They include size, texture, overlapping, shading, height, and clarity. -Binocular Cues: those depth cues in which both eyes are needed to perceive. There are two important binocular cues, convergence and retinal disparity. *Monocular cues: -Relative size refers to the fact that larger images are perceived as closer to us, especially if the two images are of the same object. -The texture gradient of objects tend to become smoother as the object gets farther away, suggesting that more detailed textured objects are closer. -Due to overlap, those objects covering part of another object is perceived closer. -The Shading or shadows of objects can give a clue to their distance, allowing closer objects to cast longer shadows which will overlap objects which are farther away. -Objects that are closer to the bottom of our visual field are seen as closer to us due to our perception of the horizon, where higher (height) means farther away, therefore, cleaner or crisper images tend to be perceived as closer (clarity). *Binocular cues: -Convergence refers to the fact that the closer an object, the more inward our eyes need to turn in order to focus. The farther our eyes converge; the closer an object appears to be. -Since our eyes see two images that are then sent to our brains for interpretation, the distance between these two images, or their retinal disparity, provides another cue regarding the distance of the object. Perceptual Learning
*Changes in perception that can be attributed to prior experience; a result of changes in how the brain processes sensory information. *Hallucination- an imaginary sensation (seeing, hearing, smelling something that does not exist) *Illusion- a distorted perception -Muller-Layer Illusion Chapter 5: States of Consciousness *Consists of all the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of at any instant -Altered states of consciousness -Walking consciousness *Altered states of consciousness: changes occur in the quality and patter of mental activity. -Drug, alcohol, long distance running, meditation, hypnosis. -Sleep: Sleep is an innate biological rhythm that can never be ignored >The measurement of eye movement during sleep is used to divide sleep into the two broad types of Rapid Eye Movement (REM) and Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep. >Sleep proceeds in cycles of REM and the four stages of NREM, the order normally being: Stages 1>2>3>4>3>2>REM +In humans this cycle is on average 90-110 min, with a greater amount of stages 3 and 4 early in the night and more REM later in the night. +Drugs can suppress certain stages of sleep that exhibits loss of consciousness but does not fulfill its physiological functions. *Stages of Sleep: NREM - s for 75-80% of total sleep time in normal human adults -In NREM sleep, there is relatively little dreaming.
-Non-REM encomes four stages; stages 1 and 2 are considered ‘light sleep’, and 3 and 4 ‘deep sleep’ or slow-wave sleep, SWS. *NREM Stage 1: -Light sleep-heart rate slows, breathing becomes slightly irregular, and muscles relax. -More hypnotic state, drowsy. *NREM Stage 2: -Sleep deepens, body temperature drops. *NREM Stage 3: -New large and slow brain waves appear. -Sleep terrors, nightmares, bedwetting, sleepwalking occurs *NREM Stage 4: -Deep sleep reached within 1 hour. *Stages of Sleep: REM -In adult humans, typically occupies 20-25% of total sleep, about 90-120 minutes of a night’s sleep. -During a normal night of sleep, humans usually experience about 4 or 5 periods of REM sleep: they are quite short at the beginning of the night and longer toward the end. -Most people tend to wake, or experience a period of very light sleep, for a short time immediately after a bout of REM. *Sleep Disturbances: serious risk to health and happiness -Insomnia: The inability to fall asleep and stay asleep. -Sleepwalking and sleep talking: usually takes place during stage 3 and stage 4 of NREM sleep. -Nightmares and Night Terrors >Nightmares are bad dreams that occur in REM sleep >Night terrors cause total panic, hallucinations, and high physiological arousal (NREM)
>Narcolepsy: Sudden irresistible sleep attacks; May last a few minutes to ½ hour; Victim sleeps while standing, talking or driving. -Sleep Apnea: Breathing stops for periods of 20 seconds to 2 minutes causing person to gulp for air -Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)-crib death: Affects 1 of 500 babies per year; baby stops breathing after apnea. *Dreaming -Most people dream 4-5 times a night. -Most associated with REM sleep >In Children, REM may stimulate the developing brain. process
>In adults, REM may prevent sensory deprivation and help emotional events.
+Activism-Synthesis Hypothesis: Several parts of the brain are activated during REM sleep, and the cortex of the brain synthesizes this activity into stories and visual images +Freud(Psychodynamic Dream Theory) *Other altered states of consciousness -Hypnosis (Greek for sleep): Thought to be “a trance-like state that resembles sleep but is induced by a person whose suggestions are readily accepted by the subject” -Meditation: mental discipline by which one attempts to get beyond the conditioned, “thinking” mind into a deeper state of relaxation or awareness. It often involves turning attention to a single point of reference. -Sensory deprivation: deliberate reduction or removal of stimuli form one or more of the senses. Though short periods of sensory deprivation can be relaxing, extended deprivation can result in extreme anxiety, hallucinations, and depression. *Psychoactive drugs: affect attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, and/or perception. -Effects on the brain:
>Increase neurotransmitters (stimulant) >Slows or blocks stimulation (depressant) *Stimulants (“Uppers”): Temporarily increase alertness and awareness -Increase the activity of either the sympathetic nervous system, the central nervous system (CNS) or both. >Sympathetic Nervous System: becomes more active during times of stress. Its actions during the stress response compromise the flight or flight response >CNS: It contains the majority of the nervous system, and consists of the brain, and the spinal chord. -Stimulants include: Amphetamines, caffeine and nicotine *Depressants (“Downers”): A chemical agent that diminishes the function or activity of a specific part of the body like a sedative. -Many depressants acting on the CNS do so by increasing the activity of a particular neurotransmitter known as gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA). >CNS depressants require a period of adaptation. Typically, initial side effects include slurred speech and alcohol is a downer. *Hallucinogens: merely amplify familiar states of mind, but rather induce experiences that are qualitatively different from those of ordinary consciousness -Hashish, LSD, P, and Marijuana *Addiction: -Physical dependence: A person compulsively uses a drug to maintain bodily comfort. >Drug tolerance: reduced response to a drug >Withdrawal symptoms: When physical illness follows removal of a drug. -Psychological dependence: A person feels that a drug is necessary to maintain feelings of comfort or wellbeing. Chapter 6
*Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience -Merely repeating a response will not necessarily produce learning -Reinforcement is the key to learning- Reinforcement is any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur. *Antecedents: events that precede a response- classical conditioning *Consequences: effects that follow a response- operant conditioning *Classical Conditioning- a form of learning in which reflex responses are associate with new stimuli -Based on what happens before a response is made (antecedent) >Involves ive behaviors >A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that leads to an unconditioned response. elicit the response.
>Learning happens when the neutral stimulus is able to same response, now called the conditioned
*“Unconditioned” simply means that the stimulus and the response are naturally connected. They just came that way, hard wired -“stimulus” simply means the thing that starts it while “response” means the thing that ends it. A stimulus elictts and a response is elicited. * “Conditioning” means the opposite of unconditioned. It means that we are trying to associate, connect, bond, link something new with the old relationship. And we want this new thing to elicit (rather that be elicited) so it will be a stimulus not a response. *Summary: -Unconditioned Stimulus: a thing that can already elicit a response. _Unconditioned Response: a thing that is already elicited by a stimulus.
-Unconditioned Relationship: an existing stimulus-response connection -Conditioning stimulus: a new stimulus we deliver the same time we give the old stimulus -Conditioned Relationship: the new stimulus-response relationship we created by associating a new stimulus with an old stimulus. *This is the essence of classical conditioning. It really is that simple. You start with two things that are already connected with each other (food and salivation). Then you add a third thing (Bell)… Operant conditioning*Classical conditioning forms an association between two stimuli. Operant conditioning forms an association between a behavior and a consequence. (it also called response-stimulus or RS conditioning because it forms an association between the animal’s response [behavior] and the stimulus that follows [consequence]) Four possible Consequences *Something Good can start or be presented (positive) *Something Good can end or be taken away (negative) *Something Bad can start or be presented (negative) *Something Bad can end or be taken away (positive) Reinforcement/Punishment *Anything that increases a behavior- makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger, or makes it more likely to occur- is termed a reinforce. *Anything that decreases a behavior- makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or makes it less likely to occur- is termed a punisher. BF SKINNER Positive Negative
Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
Punishment Positive punishment Negative Punishment
Partial Reinforcement and Stimulus Control *Ratio Schedules-based on number of responses -Fixed ration and –variable ratio *Interval Schedules- based on time elapsed -Fixed interval and –variable interval Chapter 7:Memory Memory is defined as the mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving information. *Encoding: Converting information into a form in which it will be retained in memory. *Storage: Holding information in storage for later use. *Retrieval: Recovering information from storage in memory. Memory Systems *Sensory Memory -s incoming information from the environment through our senses for a few seconds or less. -Iconic Memory: an exact copy of what you see (less than 1 sec) -Echoic Memory: An exact copy of what you hear (less than 4 sec.) *Short-Term Memory: holds a small amount of memory to be used immediately. -Limited capacity of information -Sensitive to interruption and interference -A working of sorts *Features of Short-Term Memory -STM’s capacity is typically about 7 bits of information (+2). STM’s duration is typically 12-18 seconds. >Chunking: Reorganizing information into chunk. (phone numbers) >Rehearsal: Repeating information
*Long-Term Memory-Acts as lasting, nearly limitless, storehouse for knowledge. -Stored on basis of meaning and importance. *Features of Long-Term Memory -The brain does not store memories in one unified structure. Instead different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain. -LTM is typically divided into two major headings: declarative memory (facts) and procedural memory (skill). -Declarative memory >All memories that are consciously available >Episodic memory refers to memory for specific events each time >Semantic memory refers to knowledge about the external such as the function of a pencil
world
-Procedural Memory- the use of objects or movements of the body (using a pencil or riding a bike) Measuring Memory *Memories from past experience that are consciously brought to mind are explicit. Memories outside of awareness are implicit. -Explicit: Recall, Recognition, and Relearning -Implicit: Priming Forgetting *Encoding Failure, Repression (memory you repress), Memory Decay, Suppression (porously forgetting), Cue-Dependent Forgetting, StateDependant Learning, Interference Improving your memory *Spaced practice, whole vs. Part learning, Organization, Overlearning, and Memory cues Chapter 8: Intelligence
Intelligence- the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment. *General mental ability (g-factor) -Reasoning -Problem-solving -Knowledge -Memory -Successful adaptation to one’s surrounding G-actor *Fluid Intelligence- consists of reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing. It involves such skills as those requiring spatial and visual imagery and is generally believed to be much less affected by experience and education that crystallized intelligence. *Crystallized Intelligence- concerns the application of knowledge to problem solving. It includes abilities such as reasoning and verbal and numerical skills and is generally believed to be affected by experience and formal education. Intelligence Test *Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale- 5th edition -A standardized test that assesses intelligence and cognitive abilities in children and adults aged 2-23 -Tests intelligence across four areas: fluid (verbal) reasoning, quantitative reasoning, spatial/visual reasoning, and working memory. >15 subtests, including vocabulary, comprehension, verbal absurdities, pattern analysis, matrices, paper folding, cutting, copying, quantitative, number series, equation building, memory for sentences, memory for digits, memory for objects, and bead memory. IQ= Intelligence Quotient *Mental age (average intellectual performance) *Chronological age- MA/CA multiply 100=IQ
*Standard Deviations (points above or below the mean) *Mean (Average) Intelligence Test *Weschler Scales -Wechsler Preschool and primary scale of intelligence (WPPSI) -Wechsler intelligence Scale for Children- Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) -Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- Third Edition (WAIS-III) *Measures on three main scales: -Verbal IQ -Performance IQ -Full-scale IQ *Measure four subscales -Verbal comprehension -Perceptual organization -Working memory -Processing standard Thinking *Cognition is the process by which we mentally process information. -Images- pictures like mental reproductions -Concepts- ideas that represent categories of objects or events -Language- words or symbols and rules for combining them *Images- mental nonverbal representations of sensory experiences, affect our thinking and learning, particularly when dealing with physical skills and certain nonverbal materials such as mathematical formulas. -For example, the images we hold of a champion’s suburb golf strokes may govern our own attempts to develop similar skills.
*Concepts- the mental categories used to organize events and objects, are often arranged in hierarchical order from general to more specific -For example, organism, animal, vertebrate, quadruped, dog, collie. Such categories help people to understand new information. *Language- is a system of communication using gestures, sounds, or written symbols that have significance for those who use the language and follow its rules -Phonemes: the smallest unit of sound in a language. >Have no meaning they acquire it when combined -Morphemes- smallest unit of meaning in a spoken language >The word overcoat is compressed of two morphemes. *Semantics- refers to the study of meaning in a language *Syntax- are the rules used when forming words into sentences *Grammar- refers to the rules for combining language units to form meaningful speech and writing *Sign language (gestured language) *Problem Solving -Trial and Error- Guessing or randomly trying an approach (least effective) -Information Retrieval- retrieval of pertinent information from long-term memory -Algorithms- the methodical development of a step-by-step method to solve a problem. -Heuristics- rules of thumb to deal with a problem, sometimes based on information easily available in memory. Creative Thinking * Convergent thinking: thinking directed toward discovery of a single established correct answer; conventional thinking *Divergent thinking: thinking that produces many ideas or alternatives; a major element in original or creative thought.
Stages of Creative Thought *Orientation *Preparation *Incubation *Illumination *Verification Chapter 9: Motivation *Motivation is the ways in which our actions are initiated, sustained, directed, and terminated. *A model of motivation -Need Drive Response Goal Need Reduction Need again (p372) Three Categories of Motives *Primary Motives- Based on biological needs for food, water, air, etc. to ensure survival of the individual. *Stimulus Motives- Our needs for stimulation and information appear to be innate, but not strictly necessary for survival. *Secondary motives- based on learned needs, drives, and goals. Hunger Thirst Pain and Sex *Hunger- a physical response to a mental need -As the brain receives signals (via the hypothalamus) that the body needs nourishment. >Emotional eating, yo-yo dieting, eating disorders +Anorexia Nervosa, bulimia Nervosa *Thirst- 2 types -Extracellular. Thirst develops when there is a loss of fluid volume between body cells. (Perspiration) -Intracellular. Thirst develops when there is a loss of fluid from within body cells. (Eating salts)
*Pain- An episodic drive that prompts us to avoid damage to the bodypartially learned. *Sex- sex drive refers to ones motivation to engage in sexual behavior. -Sex in not necessary for individual survival. It is necessary for the survival of a species. -What attracts us? Pheromones. >Estrogen (women) Androgens (men) -What can “kill” a sex drive: alcohol, cocaine, LSD, barbiturates, marijuana. Arousal, Achievement, and Growth Needs *Arousal- Theory: we try to keep arousal at a workable level *Achievement: Learned motives are acquired as a part of growing up in a society or culture. *Growth: Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs places growth needs at the top. Emotion and Physical Arousal *Emotion is characterized by physiological arousal, subjective feelings, and change in behavior -Reactions to threats are innate. Caused by arousal of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). >Fight or Flight (sympathetic) >Parasympathetic rebound (aka: sudden death) *There are 8 primary emotions -Fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, trust -They are different from moods (mood is a low intensity long lasting emotional state.)
Chapter 11 Health Physchology *Concered with understanding how biology, behavior, and social context influence health and illness -Clinical health (CIHP) -Occupational health (OHP) -Public health (PHP) -Community health (CoHP) -Critical health psychology (CrHP) Stress *Mental and physical condition that occurs when we adapt to the environment. *Origins of actual stress may vary with the individual, but in general, stress arises from frustration, life changes, conflict, lack of control, and uncertainty. *The amount of stress we feel depends on how we perceive the situation; threat or a thrill? -Primary appraisal- is this situation relevant to us? -Secondary appraisal- what can we do about it? *There are 2 ways to cope with stress -Problem-focused coping: facing the problem head-on
-Emotion-focused coping: control of emotions through redirection *Conflict occurs when contradictory choices must be made -Approach-approach conflict occurs when an individual must choose between 2 equally desirable goals -Avoidance-Avoidance conflict- occurs when an individual must choose between 2 equally undesirable goals or activities -Approach-Avoidance conflict is the resulting of having concomitant but incompatible goals. Frustation *Frustration occurs when obstacles prevent us from reaching desired goals. *Frustration can motivate aggression *When coping with frustration: -Identify source of frustration: avoid misplaced aggression -Can it be changed? -If it can be changed, are the efforts worth it?: Distinguish between real barriers and imagined ones. *Anxiety is apprehension toward an unclear threat- similar to fear. -Defenses: Defense Mechanism is a habitual and often unconscious psychological process used to reduce anxiety (table 11.4 in text) -Learned Helplessness: an acquired inability to overcome obstacles and avoid aversive stimuli (even in the face of power) -Depression: emotional problem with marked features of powerlessness, despondency, and overwhelmed helplessness Suicide *4x as many men commit suicide then women. -Male suicides are typically more lethal due to their methods of choice. -Women tend to use drugs more often
*In the U.S. Native Americans have the highest suicide rate, followed closely by Caucasians. -With in the global community, suicide rates are highest in aboriginal people of Australian and New Zealand *Suicide is the second largest cause of death among college-aged students *Suicide rates increase with advancing age. -More than half of all suicide victims are over 45 y/o (White males 65+ are particularly at risk) *Causes: there isn’t one major cause for suicide, but there are factors. -Alcohol abuse, depression, or a mood disorder, aggressive behavior, extreme failure, prior suicide attempt, family history. -Of every 10 suicides, 8 give warnings >Withdrawal, giving away items, change in personality, preoccupations with death, death imagery art, depression/ hopelessness *An estimated 2/3 of all suicide attempts are made by people who do not really want to die -Only 3-5% of suicide cases involve people who really want to die. -Suicidal behavior is a cry for help >Establish a rapport with the person, seek help, “are you thinking of suicide?” be vigilant in the help of your friend
Chapter 13 Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis *Psychoanalysis (Freud) -Created over 100 years ago -Stressed neurosis and hysteria as effects of repressed memories, motives, and conflicts. -Common techniques used include >Free association
>Dream analysis >Analysis of transference Insight Therapies *Humanistic Therapies: -Client centered therapy >Non-directive, allowing the patient to lead the therapy >Goal: Uncover the “true self” hidden behind a screen of defenses -Existential Therapy >Focuses on the problem of existence >Goal: Emphasizes the ability to make your own personal choices- you choose to be the person you want to be. -Gestalt Therapy >Integration of fragmented experiences into a whole connected
>Goal: Helps rebuild thinking, feeling, and acting into wholes
Behavioral Therapy *Use learning principles to make constructive changes in behavior patterns -Behavior modification refers to any use of classical or operant conditioning to directly alter human behavior >Aversion Therapy and Desensitization *Operant and Cognitive Therapies -Operant Therapies: use of operant conditioning (positive/negative reinforcemtn) -Cognitive Therapies: help change thinking patterns that lead to troublesome emotions or behaviors >Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)- Core irrational beliefs (You must treat me fairly. Conditions must be the way I want them to be)
Other Therapies *Group Therapy: Psychodrama, Family Therapy, Group Awareness Training *Medical Therapies: Psychopharmacology, Electroshock, and Psychosurgery *Self-management (thought stopping) Psychotherapy *Core factors: Therapeutic alliance, safe, confidential setting for catharsis, clients have a new perspective about themselves and their situation *Basic Counseling skills: Active listening, clarify problem, focus on feelings, avoid giving advice, accept the person’s frame of reference, use of silence, reflection of thoughts and feelings, ask open-ended questions, maintain confidentiality
Chapter 12 Psychopathology *The Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental Disorders (DSM_IV_TR) -Axis I- Clinical Disorders -Axis II-Personality Disorders, Mental Retardation -Axis III- General Medical Conditions -Axis IV- Psychosocial and Environmental Problems -Axis V- Global Assessment of Functioning *Normal refers to socially acceptable. Things that fall outside of what’s socially acceptable is abnormal -Subjective discomfort-Disordered Behavior-Socially Nonconformity-Statistical abnormality-Insanity Personality Disorders
*Defined by maladaptive personality patterns -Paranoid PD -Schizoid PD –Antisocial PD (Sociopaths) –Borderline PD –Histrionic PD –Narcissistic PD –Avoidant PD –Dependent PD – Obsessive Compulsive PD Stress and Dissociative Disorders *Stress disorders occur when people experience stresses outside the rang of the norm -Acute stress Disorder –Posttraumatic Stress Disorder *Dissociative disorders are a disruption in normal memory, recall, consciousness, identity, or perception. -Amnesia –Fugue –Identity Disorder – Depersonalization Disorder Anxiety Based Disorders *Refers to uncontrollable feelings of apprehension, dread, or uneasiness -Panic Disorders –Phobias –Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder– Somatoform Disorders Psychosis and Delusion Disorders *Psychosis –A loss of with reality -Delusions –hallucinations –Organic Psychosis –Paranoid Psychosis *Delusions Disorders- an unmistakable break with reality that may involve paranoia, jealousy, delusions etc. -Erotomanic type – Jealous type –Somatic type –Grandiose type – Persecutory Schizophrenia *Consists of delusions, hallucinations, inappropriate emotions and thinking, abnormal effects. -Disorganized –Catatonic –Paranoid –Undifferentiated Mood Disorders
*Major disturbance in emotion -Depressive Disorder: exaggeration, prolonged, or seasonal sadness or despondency. >Major Depressive Disorder, Dysthymic Disorder -Bipolar Disorder: depressive disorder that alternates with manic episodes of varying degree >Bipolar I and II Others Disorders *Child Disorders -ADHD –Oppositional Defiant –Conduct Disorders –Learning Disorders *Substance Related Disorders *Somatoform Disorders -Body Dysmorphic Disorder -Hyponchondriasis *Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders -Sexual Dysfunction –Paraphilias >Exhibitionism >Fetishism>Pedophilia>Arousal Disorders>Sexual Pain Disorders *Eating Disorders *Sleeping Disorders -Dysomnias (Insomnia, Narcolepsy) –Parasomnias (Nightmare and night terrors) *Factitious Disorders *Impulsive Control Disorders -Kleptomania –Intermittent Explosive Disorder -Trichotillomania *Adjustment Disorders *Mental Retardation and Pervasive Developemental Disorders
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