Environmental Impact Assessment By L.w. Canter 475v3x

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT L. W. Canter

a b

a

Civil Engineering and Environmental Science b

National Center for Ground Water Research, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma Version of record first published: 06 Feb 2012

To cite this article: L. W. Canter (1982): ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT, Impact Assessment, 1:2, 6-40 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07349165.1982.9725447

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT L.W. Canter* Over 14,000 environmental impact statements (EISs) have been prepared in the United States since the January 1,1970 effective date of the National Environmental Policy Act (Public Law 91-190). In addition, the number of prepared environmental impact assessments (EIAs) exceeds, by a t least a n order of magnitude, the number of EISs. An EIA refers to a document that provides sufficient analysis for determining whether to prepare a n EIS or a finding of no significant impact (FONSI). The basic purpose of NEPA is to ensure that the environment is considered in project planning and decision-making along with traditional technical factors and economic analyses. The 1979 Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations gave emphasis to using scientific approaches and techniques in impact prediction and analysis (Council on Environmental Quality, 1978). This emphasis was due, in part, to the fact that many EIAs and EISs prepared during the 1970s were lacking in scientific approach. The purpose of this paper is to identify scientific methods and techniques which can be used in environmental impact studies. A complete review of applicable approaches is beyond the scope of this paper, therefore, only examples will be cited. A framework for the conduct of environmental impact studies is shown in Figure 1 (Canter, 1977). Key elements include basic activities, preparation of a description of the affected environment, impact prediction and assessment, selection of the preferred action from alternative plans based on environmental effects and other considerations, and appropriate environmental documentation through the writing of an EIA or EIS. BASIC ACTIVITIES Basic activities include the formulation of alternatives for meeting identified needs and the thorough review of appropriate laws, regulations, and executive orders. There are

*Professor of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science and Co-Director, National Center for Ground Water Research, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma. 6

T

>

Impact Prediction and Assessment

Figure 1:

Selection of Proposed Action-

W r i t t en Documentation

Framework f o r Envirorimental Impact Studies

Description of Affected Environment

Basic Activities

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over 30 federal laws, regulations, and executive orders which must be considered in the preparation of EIAs or EISs. Another aspect is the formation of an interdisciplinary study team appropriate for each study in each geographical location. Interdisciplinary study teams should include persons who can address impacts on the physical and chemical, biological, cultural, and socio-economic environments (U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1977). Basic activities also include the identification of potential environmental impacts from alternative plans. Several approaches can be utilized, including literature reviews on the environmental consequences of similar projects (Canter, 1980), and the development of interaction matrices or networks. Interaction matrices are directed toward identifying the potential impacts of project features on identified environmental factors (Leopold, 1971; Fischer and Davies, 1973; Bhutani, et al., 1975; Yorke, 1978; Baram and Webster, 1979). Networks refer to structured approaches in which initial and subsequent environmental changes are linearly displayed (Sorenson, 1971; Whitlich, 1976; and U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1977). AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT The second element is the preparation of a description of the affected environment for the potential area of influence. This requires identification of environmental factors and their organization into physical-chemical, biological, cultural, and socio-economic components. Numerous checklists of environmental factors are available (Dee, et al., 1972; Carstea, et al., 1975; Voorhees and Associates, 1975; Fitzsimmons, Stuart, and Wolff, 1975; Duke, et al., 1977; Canter and Hill, 1979). Major tasks include the procurement of existing baseline information as well as the planning and conduct of necessary field studies. Table 1 lists example references on data sources and planning. An important need is to recognize interrelationships among environmental factors; one approach is to use indices for air and water quality, and biological and socio-economic features (Inhaber, 1976; Ott, 1978). IMPACT PREDICTION AND ASSESSMENT The most important technical element involves the predic7

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tion of changes in environmental factors resulting f r o 6 alter7 native plans, and the interpretation and assessment of their significance. Every attempt should be made to quantify anticipated changes and to use scientific rationale for significance assessment. Impact prediction and assessment can be considered relative to environmental components, and within the physical-chemical component are mathematical models for predicting changes in air, water, and noise quality as well as other geological or physical features. Table 2 lists some example references for various models. Assessment of impact significance can be based on environmental standards for air, water, and noise quality; and the exercise of professional judgment. Biological impact prediction is primarily based on habitat or land use changes or more sophisticated approaches such as the Habitat Evaluation Procedure (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1980) and the Habitat Evaluation System (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1980). A key limitation is the absence of techniques for quantifying habitat changes, particularly when considering long-term effects. Highly sophisticated approaches involve the use of energy systems diagrams, although this technique is not widely used due to data, personnel, and resource requirements. Significance interpretation should be based on appropriate laws, regulations, and executive orders as well as the application of ecological principles and professional judgement. Table 3 lists some example references for biological impact prediction and assessment. Impact prediction and assessment for the cultural environment involves eonsideration of changes in historic and archeological resources as well as cultural attributes such as visual quality. Several methodologies exist for describing the visual quality of an area, and, by use of conceptual drawings and photographs, these same methodologies can be used to quantify and evaluate project-induced changes in visual quality. Table 4 identifies some example references for the cultural environment. Socio-economic impact prediction can be based on models ranging from simple extrapolation techniques to complicated econometric approaches. Interpretation of changes can be based on recommended standards or criteria, geographical 8

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averages, and the relationship of the information to original design standards or concepts (Voorhees and Associates, 1975; Fitzsimmons, Stuart,-and Wolff, 1975; Chalmers and Anderson, 1977). Table 5 lists some example references for socio-economic impact prediction and assessment. SELECTION OF PROPOSED ACTION Selection of the proposed action from a series of alternative plans represents the focal element in the environmental impact process. Systematic methodologies should be used to compare alternatives; many methodologies involve multiple criteria decision-making wherein decision factors are assigned importance weights and each alternative is evaluated based on each decision factor. Alternatives can be scaled or ranked from best to worst in of each of the decision factors, with a final decision matrix used for displaying the results. Table 6 identifies some methodologies which can be useful in the selection process. Several types of alternatives should be considered, including site locations, timing alternatives, various design features of specific alternatives a t specific locations, and no action (Council on Environmental Quality, 1978). DOCUMENTATION The final element is the preparation of written documentation. Appropriate technical writing principles should be utilized in the preparation of either an EIA or EIS. One of the best aids is the development of an extensive outline prior to initiating the writing process. Liberal usage should be made of visual display materials such as maps, photographs, tables, and figures. Glossaries of technical can also be useful in documentation. Scientific referencing should be utilized for procured environmental setting information as well as impact prediction techniques. CONCLUDING REMARKS Numerous scientific methods and techniques are available for usage in environmental impact studies; however they have not been extensively used due to one or more of the following reasons: (1)minimal emphasis on their use until the 1979 CEQ regulations; (2) information gap due to lack of knowledge of 9

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available approaches on the part of many practitioners; (3) non-existence of current technology during the early years of the decade of the 1970s; and (4) general reluctance to use approaches which 3re perceived to be time and cost consuming. Usage of scientific methods and techniques is expected to increase due to the 1979 CEQ regulations and the growing emphasis on public participation. Active public participation programs encourage practitioners to utilize the most appropriate methods and techniques in environmental impact studies. In fact, public participation undergirds all elements in the framework for environmental impact studies. Appropriate public participation techniques should be selected based on the objectives of the public participation effort, the potential publics to be involved, and the communication characteristics of individual techniques relative to objectives and publics (Bishop, 1975). Another reason for an increasing usage of scientific methods and techniques is the increasing knowledge base for conduct of environmental impact studies. One of the long-term benefits of the environmental impact process is that needed research continues to be identified by agencies. This directed research should lead to cost reductions in project planning as a result of new information on the environmental effects of various project types. Some research needs related to environmental impact studies are listed in Table 7. Only the first two items will be addressed from the non-prioritized listing. Post-audit analysis refers to studies needed to whether or not predicted impacts actually occurred, and if their magnitudes match those that were anticipated. If post-audit analyses can be made, this will enable better conduct of future studies since the approaches can be calibrated to more accurately reflect anticipated impacts. Value judgments are used throughout the enviromental impact process, and research is needed to better understand and integrate value judgments within the process. Finally, environmental impact studies should be based on the use of a systematic framework and approach. There is no substitute for the application of the scientific process and appropriate technology in environmental impact studies. These studies must be founded on these principles in order to achieve an appropriate consideration of the environment in project planning and decision-making. 10

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TABLE 1: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON STUDIES OF THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT Topical Area

Reference

Data Sources

Golden, et al. (1979)Data reference book for environmental impact studies. Keown and Weathersby (1976)-Catalog of information sources for environmental baseline description. Meyers, Fake, and Ausura (1977)-Directory of major environmental data bases maintained by federal agencies. Naval Environmental Office (1976)Sources of environmental information are listed, including federal and California state sources. Van Weringh, e t al. (1975) -Collection of Environmental laws, regulations, and standards.

11

Burns (1978)-Proceedings of symposium on planning for environmental impact studies.

Study Planning

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Rau and Wooten (1980)Comprehensive handbook for conducting environmental impact studies. States, et al. (1978)Planning for ecological baseline studies. Stout, et al. (1978)-Planning for integrated baseline studies of the environment. Ward (1978)-Book on planning, conducting, and interpreting biological impact studies.

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TABLE 2: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON IMPACT PREDICTION A N D ASSESSMENT FOR THE PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT Topical Area

Reference

Air

Busse and Zimmerman (1973)-Discussion of climatological dispersion model (CDM). Turner (1970)-Workbook of atmospheric dispersion calculations from multiple source types.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1977) -Discussion of singlesource, steady-state Gaussian plume dispersion model. Surface Water

Brown (1979)-221 abstracts on the hydrodynamics and modeling of heated effluents.

Nemorow (1974)-Book on modeling water quality resulting from organic pollution.

13

Orlob (1977)-Literature review of mathematical modeling of surface water impoundments.

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Ozturk (1979)-Model of dissolved oxygen in estuaries. Velz (1970)-Book on modeling water quality resulting from organic, inorganic, thermal, and bacterial pollution. Hammer and MacKichan (1981)-Overview of quantity and quality aspects of surface and ground water.

Ground Water

Prickett (1979)-Summary of ground water modeling techniques. Overton (1977)-Modeling of effects of land use changes on streamflow quantity and quality.

Non-Point Pollution

14

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1976) -Procedures for predicting impacts of urban stormwater.

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Walker (1976)-Literature review of irrigation return flow models. Noise

Kessler, e t al. (1978)Evaluation of construction site noise. Magrab (1975)-Book on noise prediction from variety of source types.

TABLE 3: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON IMPACT PREDICTION A N D ASSESSMENT FOR THE BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Topical Area

Reference

Habitat Approaches

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (198O)--Systematic methodology for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem evaluations. 15

U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service (1980)-Procedural manual for estimating and comparing development project impacts on fish and wildlife resources.

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Ecosystem Models

Gilliland and Risser (1977)-Systems diagrams and energy flow analysis of activities a t White Sands Missile Range. Green (1978)-Model for the Chesapeake Bay ecosystem with submodels on wetlands, plankton, seagrasses , other benthos, and fish trophic levels. Najarian and Harleman (1977)-Model of nitrogen-cycle dynamics in an estuarine system. O’Neill, Ferguson, and Watts (1977)-946 references on mathematical modeling, with emphasis on forest biomes.

16

Ostrofsky and Duthie (1978)-Methodology for modeling productivity in reservoirs.

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Veith, Defoe, and Bergstedt (1979)-Model for estimating bioconcentration of organic chemicals in fish. Walker and Bayley (1978)-Quantification of the contribution of natural ecosystems to man’s economy in benefit - cost analysis.

Assessment

Bovee and Cochnauer (1977)-Methodology using weighted criteria to assess impacts on stream habitats. Fletcher and Busnel (1978)-Book summarizing effects of noise on aquatic and terrestrial wildlife. Mueller (1977)-Discussion of burdening capacity of ecosystems.

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Perez (1978)-Discussion of persistence limits in ecological systems.

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Sharma (1975)-Conference proceedings on determining the significance of biological impacts. Stalnaker and Arnette (1976)-Methodologies for determining instream flow requirements for fish, terrestrial wildlife, and water quality.

T m L E 4: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON I M P E T PREDICTION A N D A S S E S S M E N T FOR THE CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT Topical Area

Reference

Historical and Archeological Resources

Dickens and Hill (1978) -16 papers on cultural resources planning and management. King (1978)-Description of methods for conducting archeological surveys. 18

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Visual Quality

Bagley, Kroll, and Clark (1973)-Review of 12 methodologies for measuring or quantifying aesthetics.

Felleman (1975)-Review of numerical, geometric, and geomorphic landform description approaches for evaluating scenic quality.

Harper (1975)-Use-oriented method for visual quality evaluation of the coastal zone.

U S . Bureau of Land Management (19783)Description of visual resource contrast rating system.

U.S. Bureau of Land Management (1978b)Description of method for upland visual resource inventory and evaluation.

U.S. Forest Service (1974)-Description of visual management system used for the 19

Forest Service studies in the northwestern United States.

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U S . Soil Conservation Service (1978)-Description of procedure for landscape resource quality.

TABLE 5: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES ON IMPACT PREDICTION FOR THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT Topical Area General Approaches

Reference Daneke and Delli Priscoli (1979)-Discussion of quality of life ing met hodologies.

Finsterbush and Wolf (1977)-Book on methodologies for social impact assessment. Frendeway, Monarchi, and Taylor (1977)Model for regional impacts of population, employment, manufacturing, commerce, and service industries. 20

Shapiro, Luecks, and Kuhner (1978)-Evaluation of the infrastructure requirements resulting from secondary development.

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Specific Projects

Chalmers and Anderson (1977)-Methodology for prediction of economic and demographic impacts of water resources projects.

Christiansen (1976)Methodology for addressing social impacts of land development projects. FitzPatrick , et al. (1977) -Methodology for evaluation of the secondary impacts of wastewater treatment facilities.

Fitzsimmons, Stuart, and Wolf (1975)Methodology for development of social well-being for water resources projects.

21

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Guldberg and D’Agostino (1978)-Total air pollutant emissions from induced development from a wastewater project. Muller (1975)-Methodology for addressing fiscal impacts of land development projects. Muller (1976)-Methodology for addressing economic impacts of land development projects. Mumphrey, Thayer, and Wagner (1977)-Socioeconomic impacts from outer continental shelf oil and gas development. Willeke (1978)-Socioeconomic impacts from wastewater management plans.

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TABLE 6: EXAMPLES OF METHODOLOGIES FOR COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVES AND SELECTION OF PROPOSED ACTION Methodology

Reference

Matrices

Phillips and DeFilippi (1976)-Matrix analysis and narrative description for wastewater management system.

Schwind (1977)-Matrix used to evluate impacts of alternative land uses in of cost-benefit approaches. Sellers and North (1979) -Matrix for evaluation of trade-offs between economic and environmental objectives in water resources planning.

Tamblyn and Cederborg (1975)-Matrix for nuclear power plant site selection.

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Checklists

Ahmed, Husseiny, and Cho (1979)-Checklist for development of index of site acceptability for nuclear power plants.

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Burnham, Nealey, and Maynard (1975)Weighting checklist for combining societal and technical judgements relative to nuclear power plant siting.

Coastal Environments, Inc. (1976)-Checklist for evaluating on-shore impacts from off-shore oil and gas development. Gertz (1978)-Ranking checklist coupled with non-parametric statistical analysis. Sondheim (1978)-Scaling checklist for evaluation of a proposed dam project.

Modeling

Hill (1976)-Resource allocation model for evaluation of waste24

water management alternatives.

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Lavine (1979)-Energy analysis model for conducting environmental cost-benefit analyses for transportation actions. Schrender, Rustagi, and Bare (1976)-Simulation models for evaluating the impacts of alternative wildlanduse decisions.

Miscellaneous

Babb and Hickey (1978) -Use of computer graphics for evaluation of impacts from conventional energy systems. Duckstein, et al. (1977)Methodology for including uncertainty in environmental impact assessment. Hydrologic Engineering Center (1978)-Use of grid cell banks in environmental impact assessment.

25

Keeney (1976)-Decisionmaking using multiattribute utility tech+ niques.

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Rubinstein and Horn (1978)-Methodology for including risk analysis in environmental impact assessment.

TABLE 7: RESEARCH NEEDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT' STUDIES Post-Audit Analysis Value Judgment Approaches Techniques for Impact Prediction and Assessment Substantive Areas of Increasing Importance (acid rain, ground water, wetlands, energy development) Decision-Making Techniques Public Participation Techniques Benefits and Costs of Environmental Impact Studies Procedures for Systematic Review of EIS's

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SELECTED REFERENCES Ahmed, S., Husseiny, A.A., and Cho, H.Y. (1979). Formal Methodology for Acceptability Analysis of Alternate Sites for Nuclear Power Stations, Nuclear Engineering Design, 51, 361-388.

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Babb, M.C. and Hickey, H.R., Jr. (1978). Applications of Computer Graphics to Inregrated Environmental Assessments of Energy Systems, TVA/EP-78/10, Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tennessee. Bagley, M.D., Kroll, C.A., and Clark, C. (1973). Aesthetics in Environmental Planning, EPA-600/5-73-009, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. Baram, R. and Webster, R.D. (1979). Interactive Environmental Impact Computer System (EICS) Manual, CERL-TRN-80, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign, Illinois. Bhutani, J., et al. (1975). Impacts of Hydrologic Modification on Water Quality, EPA-600/2-75-007, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. Bishop, A.B. (1975). Structuring Communications Programs for Public Participation in Water Resources Planning, IWR Contract Report 75-2, U.S. Army Engineer Institute for Water Resources, Fort Belvoir, Virginia. Bovee, K.D. and Cochnauer, T. (1977). Development and Evaluation of Weighted-Criteria, Probability-of-Use Curve for lnstream Flow Assessments: Fisheries, Report No. FWS/OBS-77/63, IFIP-3, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. 27

Brown, R.J. (1979). Thermal Pollution, Part 3. Hydrology and Hydrodynamics (A Bibliography with Abstracts), National Technical Information Service, U S . Department of Commerce, Springfield, Virginia.

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Burnham, J.B., Nealey, S.M., and Maynard, W.S. (1975). Method for Integrating Societal and Technical Judgements in Environmental Decision Making, Nuclear Technology, 25, 675-681. Burns, E.A. (1978). Symposium Proceedings of Process Measurments for Environmental Assessment, held in Atlanta, on February 13-15. Final Task report, April, 1977-February 1978, EPA/600/7-78/168, TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California. Busse, A.D. and Zimmerman, J.R. (1973). ’s Guide for the Climatological Dispersion Model, Environmental Monitoring Series EPA-R4-73-024, NERC, .EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Canter, L.W. (1977). Environmental Impact Assessment, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 20-29. Canter, L.W. (1980). Review of Current Literature on Environmental Impact Studies for Water Resources Projects, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma (report submitted to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi). Canter, L.W. and Hill, L.G. (1979). Handbook of Variables for Environmental Impact Assessment, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

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Carstea, D. et al. (1975). Guidelines for the Environmental Impact Assessment of Small Structures and Related Activities in Coastal Bodies of Water, MTR-6916, Rev. 1, The Mitre Corporation, McLean, Virginia.

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Chalmers, J.A. and Anderson, E.J. (1977). Economic/Demographic Assessment Manual: Current Practices, Procedural Recommendations, and a Test Case, Engineering and Research Center, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado. Christiansen, K. (1976). Social Impacts of Land Development, URI 15700, The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C. Coastal Environments, Inc. (1976). A Process for Coastal Resources Management and Impact Assessment, report to Louisiana State Planning Office, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Council on Environmental Quality, National Environmental Policy Act-Regulations, Federal , Vol. 43, No. 230, November 29, 55978-56007. Daneke, G.A. and Delli Priscoli, J. (1979). Social Assessment and Resource Policy: Lessons from Water Planning, Natural Resources Journal, 19, 359-375. Dee, N., et al. (1972). Environmental Evaluation System for Water Resources Planning, Final Report, Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio. Dickens, R.S., Jr. and Hill, C.E., eds. (1978). Cultural Resources-Planning and Management, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado. 29

Duckstein, L., et al. (1977). Practical Use of Decision Theory to Assess Uncertainties about Actions Affecting the Environment, Completion Report, Department of Systems and Industrial Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.

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Duke, K.M., et al. (1977). Environmental Quality Assessment in Multiobjective Planning, Final Report to U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado. Fellemen, J.P. (1975). Coastal Landforms and Scenic Analysis: A Review, Proceedings, the First Annual Conference of the Coastal Society, November 1975, Arlington, Virginia, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, New York, 203-217. Finsterbush, K. and Wolf, C.P. (1977). T h e Methodology of Social Impact Assessment, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross Publishing Co., Stroudsberg, Pennsylvania. Fischer, D.W. and Davies, G.S. (1973). An Approach to Assessing Environmental Impacts, Journal of Environmental Management, 1, 207-227. FitzPatrick, M., et al. (1977). Manual for Evaluating Secondary Impact of Waste Water Treatment Facilities, Report No. EPA-600/5-78-003, Abt Associates, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts. Fitzsimmons, S.J., Stuart, L.I., and Wolf, P.C. (1975). Social Assessment Manual-A Guide to the Preparation of the Social Well-Being , Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado.

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Fletcher, J.L. and Busnel, R.G. (1978). Effects of Noise on Wildlife, Academic Press, New York.

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Frendeway, J.O., Jr., Monarchi, D.E., and Taylor, R.H. (1977). Evaluation of the Regional Activities Model (RAM) Developed a t the Center for the Environment and Man, Inc., NSF/RA-770372, Business Research Division, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. Gertz, S.M. (1978). Use of Ranking Methods to Assess Environmental Data, ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ. 652, Symposium on Biological Data in Water Pollution Assessment: Quantitative and Statistical Analyses, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 20-21, 1977, ASTM, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 68-77. Gilliland, M.W. and Risser, P.G. (1977). The Use of Systems Diagrams for Environmental Impact Assessment: Procedures and an Application, Ecological Modeling, 3, 183-199. Golden, J., et al. (1979). Environmental Impact Data Book, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan. Green, K.A. (1978). A Conceptual Ecological Model for Chesapeake Bay, FWS/OBS-78/69, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Guldberg, P.H. and D’Agostino, R.B. (1978). Growth Effects of Major Land Use Projects (Waste Water Facilities) Volume 11. Summary, Predictive Equations, and Worksheets, Report No. EPA/450/3-78/014B, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.

Hammer, M.J. and MacKichan, K.A. (1981). Hydrology and Quality of Water Resources, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

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Harper, D.B. (1975). Focusing on Visual Quality of the Coastal Zone, Proceedings, The First Annual Conference of the Coastal Society, Novem ber 1975, Arlington, Virginia, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, New York, 218-224. Hill, D. (1976). A Resource Allocation Model for the Evaluation of Alternatives in Section 208 Planning Considering Environmental, Social and Economic Effects, Proceedings of the Conference on Environmental Modeling and Simulation, April 19-22, 1976, Cincinnati, Ohio, EPA 60019-76-016, U S . Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 401-406. Hydrologic Engineering Center (1978). Guide Manual for the Creation of Grid Cell Data Banks, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Davis, California. Inhaber, H. Environmental Indices, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Keeney, R.L. (1976). Preference Models for Environmental Impact, IIASA-RM-76-4, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. Keown, M.P. and Weathersby, M.R. (1976). Baseline Elements and Information Sources for Environmental Quality Management of Military Installations, Technical Report No. M-76-10, U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

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Kessler, F.M., et al. (1978). Construction Site Noise Control Cost-Benefit Estimating Procedures, CERL-IR-N-36, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign, Illinois.

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King, T.F. (1978). The Archeological Survey: Methods and Uses, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, U S . Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Lavine, M.J., Butler, T.J. and Meyburg, A.H. (1979). Energy Analysis Manual for Environmental Benefit/Cost Analysis of Transportation Actions, two volumes, Center for Environmental Research, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Leopold, L.B., et al. (1971). A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. Magrab, E.G. (1975). Environmental Noise Control, John Wiley and Sons, New York. Meyers, B.E., Fake, E.C., and Ausura, R.V. (1977). Federal Environmental Data: A Directory of Selected Sources, National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Mueller, P. (1977). Burdening capacity of Ecosystems, International Fair and Congress on Techniques in Environmental Protection, Dusseldorf, F.R. , Universitaet des Saarlandes, Saarbruecken, West . Muller, T. (1975). Fiscal Impacts of Land Development, URI 98000, The Urban Institute, Washington, D.C.

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Muller, T . (1976). Economic Impacts of Land Development: Employment, Housing, and Property Values, URI 15800, The Urban Institute, Washington, D. C. Mumphrey, A.J., Jr., Thayer, R.E., and Wagner, F.W. (1977). OCS Development in Coastal Louisiana: A Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, Louisiana State Planning Office Report No. SPO-77-21, Urban Studies Institute, New Orleans University, New Orleans, Louisiana. ed by [39.213.54.70] at 13:47 15 July 2012

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Najarian, T.O. and Harleman, D.R.F. (1977) A Real Time Model of Nitrogen-Cycle Dynamics in an Estuarine System, Progress in Water Technology, 8, 323-345. Naval Environmental Office, (1976). Data Sources for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and Environmental Impact Statements (EISs), NESO 20.2-015, Naval Construction Battalion Center, Port Hueneme, California. Nemerow, N.L. (1974). Scientific Stream Pollution Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. O'Neill, R.V., Ferguson,N., and Watts, J.A. (1977). Bibliography of Mathematical Modeling in Ecology, EDFB/ IBP/75/5, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Orlob, G.T. (1977). Mathematical Modeling of Surface Water Impoundments, Volume I and 11, Resource Management Associates, Lafayette, California. Ostrofsky, M.L. and Duthie, H.C. (1978). An Approach to Modeling Productivity in Reservoirs, Proceedings: Congress

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