Chapter 1 - Intro To Sad.pdf 1v5y50

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

DFC3043 SYSTEM ANALYSIS & DESIGN

SUMMARY TOPIC 1 • This topic describes the introduction of information systems, the systems analysis and design concepts and various systems development methods. • This topic also covers how to prepare project plan and project management.

TOPIC • 1.1 Information System • 1.2 System Development Approach • 1.3 Project Management

TOPIC 1.1 DISCUSS INFORMATION SYSTEM

1.1.1 Define Information & Information System Information • Information is data that has been transformed into output that is valuable to s • Data that is (1) accurate and timely, (2) specific and organized for a purpose, (3) presented within a context that gives it meaning and relevance, and (4) can lead to an increase in understanding and decrease in uncertainty. • Information is valuable because it can affect behavior, a decision, or an outcome. • Eg: if a manager is told his/her company's net profit decreased in the past month, he/she may use this information as a reason to cut financial spending for the next month. A piece of information is considered valueless if, after receiving it, things remain unchanged.

1.1.1 Define Information & Information System Information System (IS) • An information system (IS) can be defined as a collection of procedures, hardware, software, people and data, organized to generate information to an organization’s objectives. • Information systems have five key components: hardware, software, data, processes, and people

1.1.2 Describe Information System Components (ISC)

Components of Information Systems • Resources of people: (end s and IS specialists, system analyst, programmers, data s etc.). • Hardware: (Physical computer equipments and associate device, machines and media). • Software: (programs and procedures). • Data: (data and knowledge bases), and • Networks: (communications media and network ).

1.1.2 Describe Information System Components (ISC) Components of Information Systems People: •

•

End s: (also called s or clients) are people who use an information system or the information it produces. They can be ants, salespersons, engineers, clerks, customers, or managers. Most of us are information system end s. IS Specialists: people who actually develop and operate information systems. They include systems analysts, programmers, testers, computer operators, and other managerial, technical, and clerical IS personnel. Briefly, systems analysts design information systems based on the information requirements of end uses, programmers prepare computer programs based on the specifications of systems analysts, and computer operators operate large computer systems.

1.1.2 Describe Information System Components (ISC)

Components of Information Systems Hardware: • •

Machines: as computers and other equipment along with all data media, objects on which data is recorded and saved. Computer systems: consist of variety of interconnected peripheral devices. Examples are microcomputer systems, midrange computer systems, and large computer systems.

1.1.2 Describe Information System Components (ISC) Components of Information Systems Software: •

•

Software Resources includes all sets of information processing instructions. This generic concept of software includes not only the programs, which direct and control computers but also the sets of information processing (procedures). Software Resources includes:  System software, such as an operating system  Application software, which are programs that direct processing for a particular use of computers by end s.  Procedures, which are operating instructions for the people, who will use an information system. Examples are instructions for filling out a paper form or using a particular software package.

1.1.2 Describe Information System Components (ISC) Components of Information Systems Data: • •

•

Data resources include data (which is raw material of information systems) and database. Data can take many forms, including traditional alphanumeric data, composed of numbers and alphabetical and other characters that describe business transactions and other events and entities. Text data, consisting of sentences and paragraphs used in written communications; image data, such as graphic shapes and figures; and audio data, the human voice and other sounds, are also important forms of data.

1.1.2 Describe Information System Components (ISC) Components of Information Systems Data: •

Data resources must meet the following criteria:  Comprehensiveness: means that all the data about the subject are actually present in the database.  Non-redundancy: means that each individual piece of data exists only once in the database.  Appropriate structure: means that the data are stored in such a way as to minimize the cost of expected processing and storage.

1.1.2 Describe Information System Components (ISC) Components of Information Systems Network: •

•

•

Telecommunications networks like the Internet, intranets, and extranets have become essential to the successful operations of all types of organizations and their computer-based information systems. Telecommunications networks consist of computers, communications processors, and other devices interconnected by communications media and controlled by communications software. The concept of Network Resources emphasizes that communications networks are a fundamental resource component of all information systems.

1.1.2 Describe Information System Components (ISC) Components of Information Systems Network: •

Network resources include:  Communications media: such as twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, microwave systems, and communication satellite systems.  Network : This generic category includes all of the people, hardware, software, and data resources that directly the operation and use of a communications network. Examples include communications control software such as network operating systems and Internet packages.

1.1.3 Various Types Of Information System

EIS

DSS

MIS

TPS

1.1.3 Various Types Of Information System Transaction Processing System (TPS) Definition:  Transaction Processing System are operational-level systems at the bottom of the pyramid.  Usually operated directly by shop floor workers or front line staff, which provide the key data required to the management of operations. This data is usually obtained through the automated or semi-automated tracking of low-level activities and basic transactions Function: Simple data processing system Input: Transaction Events Processing: Validation /Sorting/Listing/Merging/Updating/Calculation Output: List/ details Report/ Action report/ Summary report Examples:  Payroll systems, Order processing systems, Reservation systems, Stock control systems, Systems for payments and funds transfers Role of TPS:  Produce information for other systems  Cross boundaries (internal and external)  Used by operational personnel + supervisory levels  Efficiency oriented

1.1.3 Various Types Of Information System Management Information System (MIS) Definition:  The management-level systems that are used by middle managers to help ensure the smooth running of the organization in the short to medium term. The highly structured information provided by these systems allows managers to evaluate an organization's performance by comparing current with previous outputs Function: built on the data provided by the TPS Input: Internal Transaction / Internal Files/Structured Data Processing: Sorting/Merging/Summarizing Output: Details Report/ Action report/ Summary report Examples:  Sales management systems, Inventory control systems, Budgeting systems, Management Reporting Systems (MRS), Personnel (HRM) systems Role of MIS:  Based on internal information flows  Used by lower and middle managerial levels  relatively structured decisions  Deals with the past and present rather than the future  Inflexible and have little analytical capacity  Efficiency oriented?

1.1.3 Various Types Of Information System Decision System (DSS) Definition:  The knowledge based system, used by senior managers, which facilitates the creation of knowledge and allow its integration into the organization. These systems are often used to analyze existing  structured information and allow managers to project the potential effects of their decisions into the future. Such systems are usually interactive and are used to solve ill structured problems. It offer access to databases, analytical tools, allow "what if" simulations, and may the exchange of information within the organization. Function: manipulate and build upon the information from a MIS and/or TPS to generate insights and new information Input: Internal Transaction / Internal Files/ External Information Processing: Modelling/Simulation/Analysis/Summarizing Output: Summary report/ Forecast /Graph /plots Examples:  Group Decision Systems (GDSS)M Computer ed Co-operative work (CSCW), Logistics systems, Financial Planning systems, Spreadsheet Models? Role of DSS:  ill- structured or semi-structured decisions  Used by more senior managerial levels  Are concerned with predicting the future  Have analytical and/or modelling capacity

1.1.3 Various Types Of Information System Executive Information System (EIS) Definition: • Strategic-level information systems. Help executives and senior managers analyze the environment in which the organization operates, to identify long-term trends, and to plan appropriate courses of action. The information in such systems is often weakly structured and comes from both internal and external sources. Executive Information System are designed to be operated directly by executives without the need for intermediaries and easily tailored to the preferences of the individual using them. Function: organizes and presents data and information from both external data sources and internal MIS or TPS in order to and extend the inherent capabilities of senior executives. Input: External Data/Internal Files/ Pre-defined models Processing: Summarizing/ Simulation / “Narrow Down”/“Drilled Down Output: Summary report/ Forecast /Graph /plots Examples: • tend to be highly individualized and are often custom made for a particular client group. Role of EIS:  unstructured decisions  Are concerned with ease of use  Use internal and external data sources  Are concerned with predicting the future  Used only at the most senior management levels  Are effectiveness oriented  Are highly flexible

1.1.4 Impact of Information Technology on Business Strategy and Success  Companies use information as a weapon in the battle to increase productivity, deliver quality products and services, maintain customer loyalty, and make decisions  Information technology can mean the difference between success and failure  Combination of hardware and software products and services that companies use to manage, access, communicate, and share information  A vital asset that must be used effectively, updated constantly, and safeguarded carefully

1.1.4 Impact of Information Technology on Business Strategy and Success • Who develops Information Systems? – In-house applications – Software packages – Internet-based application services – Outsourcing – Custom solutions – Enterprise-wide software strategies

1.1.5 Who Uses Is • • • •

Top managers Middle Managers and Knowledge Workers Supervisors and Team Leaders Operational Employees

TOPIC 1.2 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT APPROACH

1.2.1 System Development Method – Structured Analysis – Object Oriented Analysis – Agile / Adaptive Method

1.2.1 System Development Methods Structured Analysis       

Systems development life cycle (SDLC) Predictive approach Uses a set of process models to describe a system graphically Process-centered technique Example : Waterfall model Deliverable or end product Disadvantage in the built-in structure of the SDLC, because the waterfall model does not emphasize interactivity among the phases  This criticism can be valid if the SDLC phases are followed too rigidly  Adjacent phases usually interact

1.2.1 System Development Methods Object Oriented Analysis  Combines data & processes that act on the data into things called objects  Object is a member of a class  Objects possess properties  Methods change an object’s properties  A message requests specific behavior or information from another object  Usually follow a series of analysis and design phases that are similar to the SDLC  Interactive model

1.2.1 System Development Methods Agile/Adaptive Method         

Are the newest development Emphasizes continuous Iterative development Agile community has published the Agile Manifesto Example : Spiral model Agile process determines the end result Other adaptive variations and related methods exist Two examples are Scrum and Extreme Programming (XP) Analysts should understand the pros and cons of any approach before selecting a development method

1.2.2 System Development Life Cycle Activities a. Planning g. Maintenance f. Implementation

b. Analysis

e. Testing c. Design d. Development

1.2.2 System Development Life Cycle Activities

Planning • This phase is most important. Describes desired features and operations in detail, including screen layouts, process diagrams, business rules, and other documentation. • By outlining in advance the project and the phases in the life cycle, the project takes shape in this phase.. • The company may bring in a systems analyst to do this • As this phase develops, the outline of a proposed system and feasibility analysis are put into action.

1.2.2 System Development Life Cycle Activities

Analyze • This is the process in which the analyst finds the problem in the company and submits a solution and puts the project goals into defined functions and operation of the intended application. • Tools that are used in this phase include requirements gathering, structured analysis, and (CASE) A computer-aided systems (software) engineering. • Planning may have to be considered and possible changes in feasibility may affect the budget or schedule.

1.2.2 System Development Life Cycle Activities

Design • In this phase, the team submits in detail the specific functions and parts it will contain and what it will take to build it, and describes desired features including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams, and other documentation. • The two main areas of system designs, logical system design, which shows (such as blue prints) of system and a physical systems design, which shows in detail the cost and materials of system.

1.2.2 System Development Life Cycle Activities

Development • This phase is where the company hires a programmer, data base developer and a network engineer; a programmer may use a flow chart for the process of system. • This is final stage of the initial development, and the system is put into production. • The occurrence of change is taking place. • Installation is a part of this phase. • Training would benefit the company during the development phase.

1.2.2 System Development Life Cycle Activities

Testing • Once the system is built, testing of the system must take place to ensure workability and brings all the pieces together into a special testing environment, then checks for errors, bugs and interoperability. • Any problem that exists will be found and addressed. • In this phase, verification and validation are used.

1.2.2 System Development Life Cycle Activities

Implementation • The real code is written here. Now the system is ready for an actual working environment. • Installation of systems components and old data is moved to new system, a direct cutover is used in this process, but it could be risky and difficult. • This direct cutover usually takes place during off-peak hours.

1.2.2 System Development Life Cycle Activities

Maintenance • In this phase changes, correction, additions, and moves are made. • This, the least and perhaps most important step of all, may go on forever.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models – Waterfall model – Spiral Model – Iterative and incremental development – Agile Model – Prototyping model – Rapid Application Development (RAD) – t Application Development (JAD) – Extreme Programming (XP)

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Waterfall Model  The Waterfall Model was first Process Model to be introduced for software development  It is also referred to as a linear-sequential life cycle model.  It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall model, each phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and there is no overlapping in the phases.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Waterfall Model Advantages  Simple and easy to understand and use.  Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model – each phase has specific deliverables and a review process.  Phases are processed and completed one at a time.  Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.

Disadvantages  Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back and change something that was not well-thought out in the concept stage.  No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.  High amounts of risk and uncertainty.  Not a good model for complex and objectoriented projects.  Poor model for long and ongoing projects.  Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of changing.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Spiral Model  The spiral model emphasizes the need to go back and reiterate earlier stages a number of times as the project progresses.  It's actually a series of short waterfall cycles, each producing an early prototype representing a part of the entire project.  This approach helps demonstrate a proof of concept early in the cycle, and it more accurately reflects the disorderly, even chaotic evolution of technology.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Iterative and incremental development  In Iterative model, iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a small set of the software requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the complete system is implemented and ready to be deployed.  An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of requirements.  Instead, development begins by specifying and implementing just part of the software, which is then reviewed in order to identify further requirements.  This process is then repeated, producing a new version of the software at the end of each iteration of the model.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models

Agile Model  Agile SDLC model is a combination of iterative and incremental process models with focus on process adaptability and customer satisfaction by rapid delivery of working software product.  Agile Methods break the product into small incremental builds.  These builds are provided in iterations. Each iteration typically lasts from about one to three weeks.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models

Agile Model  Every iteration involves cross functional teams working simultaneously on various areas like planning, requirements analysis, design, coding, unit testing, and acceptance testing.  At the end of the iteration a working product is displayed to the customer and important stakeholders.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Prototyping model  The Software Prototyping refers to building software application prototypes which display the functionality of the product under development but may not actually hold the exact logic of the original software.  Software prototyping is becoming very popular as a software development model, as it enables to understand customer requirements at an early stage of development.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Prototyping model  It helps get valuable from the customer and helps software designers and developers understand about what exactly is expected from the product under development.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Rapid Application Development (RAD) 



 

RAD is attempts to create an application more through strategies that include fewer formal methodologies and reusing software components. Is a team-based technique that speeds up information systems development and produces a functioning information system Relies heavily on prototyping and involvement Interactive process continues until the system is completely developed and s are satisfied

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Rapid Application Development (RAD)

    

Advantages Reduced development time. Increases reusability of components Quick initial reviews occur Encourages customer Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.



 



Disadvantages Depends on strong team and individual performances for identifying business requirements. Only systems that can be modularized can be built using RAD Requires highly skilled developers/designers. High dependency on modeling skills

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models t Application Development (JAD)  



The t Application Development (JAD) methodology aims to involve the client in the design and development of an application. This is accomplished through a series of collaborative workshops called JAD sessions. A structured group process focused on determining requirements

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models • JAD Participants  Facilitator Trained in JAD techniques Sets agenda and guides group processes  Scribe(s) Record content of JAD sessions  s and managers from business area with broad and detailed knowledge

• JAD Advantages and Disadvantages  More expensive and can be cumbersome if the group is too large relative to the size of the project  Allows key s to participate effectively  When properly used, JAD can result in a more accurate statement of system requirements, a better understanding of common goals, and a stronger commitment to the success of the new system

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Extreme Programming (XP) • Improve software quality and responsiveness to changing customer requirements • A type of agile software development • Frequent "releases" in short development cycles • Introduce checkpoints where new customer requirements can be adopted. • Short, incremental development cycles. • Automated tests. • Two-person programming teams.

1.2.4 Types of Life Cycle Models Extreme Programming (XP) Pros: • Communication between developers • High level of productivity. • High-quality code. Cons: • Requires lots of communication with developer who are not necessarily good at communicating with individual who are not technical

1.2.5 Compare the Traditional Waterfall Model with Agile Methods and Model

1.2.5 Waterfall VS Agile

1.2.5 Waterfall VS Agile Criteria

Waterfall

Agile

Advantages

1. Stresses on meticulous record keeping. Having such records allows for the ability to improve upon the existing program in the future. 2. The client knows what to expect. Client have an idea of the size, cost, and timeline for the project (start and end) 3. Allows for minimal project impact / recovery (unexpected incident) due to strong documentations

1. Allows for changes to be made after the initial planning. Re-writes to the program, as the client decides to make changes. 2. It’s easier to add features that will keep developer up to date with the latest developments in industry. 3. Early evaluation. At the end of each sprint, project priorities are evaluated. This allows clients to add their . 4. Early error detection and problem solved in early stage. 5. Promising and high potential to meet dateline.

Disadvantages

1. No reversing allowed. Once a step has been completed, developers can’t go back to a previous stage and make changes. 2. Relies heavily on initial requirements. However, if these requirements are faulty in any manner, the project is impacted (hot soup) 3. Not very time friendly. If a requirement error is found, or a change needs to be made, the project has to start from the beginning with all new code. 4. The whole product is only tested at the end. If bugs are written early, but discovered late, their existence may have affected how other code was written

1. Project Manager leadership is the success key. With a less successful project manager, the project can become a series of code sprints. If this happens, the project is likely to come in late and over budget. 2. Too many changes may change whole product as initial plan. As the initial project doesn’t have a definitive plan, the final product can be grossly different than what was initially intended

When the best time to use?

1. When there is a clear picture of what the final product should be. 2. When clients won’t have the ability to change the scope of the project once it has begun. 3. When definition is key to success and not based on speed.

1. When rapid production is more important than the quality 2. When clients will be able to chance the scope of the project. 3. When there isn’t a clear picture of what the final product should look like 4. When skilled developers who are adaptable and able to think independently are available for the team.

1.2.7 Apply five basic guidelines for systems development 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Develop a Plan  Prepare overall project plan and stick to it.  Complete the tasks in a logical sequence.  Develop a clear set of ground rules and ensure all in team clearly understand. Involve s and Listen Carefully to  Ensure involve in development process esp. in identifying and modeling system requirement.  Need to understand requirement and translate them in software design. Use Project Management Tools and Techniques.  Keep project on track and avoid surprises.  Create reasonable checkpoints for review session ( too many will be burdensome)  Tool eg: Mic project Develop Accurate Cost and Benefits Information  Managers need to and update them as necessary ( MUST always up to date information)  Know the cost of developing and operating a system.  Know the values and the benefits the system will provide  Provide accurate, realistic cost and benefit estimate Remain Flexible  Be flexible within the framework of the plan. Ability to react quickly is the key for a project success.

TOPIC 1.3 UNDERSTAND PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Overview Of Project Management • A successful project must be completed on time, within budget, and deliver a quality product that satisfies s and meets requirements. • Project manager or project leader o usually a senior system analyst or an IT department manager (if large project) Analyst, programmer/analyst-manage small project

• Project coordinator o handles istrative responsibilities for the team and negotiates with s who might have conflicting requirements or want changes that would require additional time or expense.

1.3.1 Explain Project Planning, Scheduling, Monitoring, And Reporting. i.

You will learn about project planning, estimating, scheduling, monitoring, reporting, and the use of project management software ii. You also will learn how to control and manage project changes as they occur iii. If one factor changes, adjustment must be made to keep things in balance 4 Budget Time Quality Project Success

1.3.1 Explain Project Planning, Scheduling, Monitoring, And Reporting. Project managers typically perform four main tasks : o Project planning Identifying all project tasks and estimating the completion time and cost of each o Project scheduling Involves the creation of a specific timetable, usually in the form of charts. Selecting and asg staff to specific tasks o Project monitoring and controlling Guiding, supervising and coordinating the project team’s workload o Project reporting Regular progress reports to management, s and the project team itself.

1.3.2 Explain Steps In Project Planning

1.3.2 Explain Steps In Project Planning 3 Key Steps in Project Planning 1. Create a work breakdown structure. 2. Identify task patterns 3. Calculate the critical path

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis. Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)  Should understand 2 chart types: i. Gantt chart ii.PERT/M chart  A chart or outline of your projects deliverables.  Large or complex deliverables are broken down into smaller components.  The lowest level components for each deliverable are known as Work Packages. • This WBS not limited to System Project Management. It can be useful for any type of project management This also covering 1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis.

i. Gantt Chart

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis. Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) ii. PERT/M chart  The Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) Critical Path Method (M)  It analyzes a large, complex project as a series of individual task.  More useful for scheduling, monitoring and controlling the actual work.

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis. Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)  Identifying Tasks in a Work Breakdown Structure  A work breakdown structure must clearly identify each task and include an estimated duration o Task or activity : any work that has a beginning and end and requires the use of company resources ( people, time, money) o Event or milestone: recognizable reference point that you can use to monitor progress.

E.g.: Task and events that might be involved in the creation, distribution and tabulation of questionnaire

.

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis. Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)  Identifying Tasks in a Work Breakdown Structure o Listing the tasks  Can be challenging, because the tasks might be embedded in a document  Highlighting the individual task  Create a table with columns for task number, description, duration, and predecessor tasks

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis.  Identifying Tasks in a Work Breakdown Structure o Estimating Task Duration • Person-days Represents the work that one person can complete in one day • Best-case estimate (B) • Probable-case estimate (P) FORMULA (B+4P+W) • Worst-case estimate (W) • Weight

6 B=best-case estimate P=probable -case estimate W=pessimistic/worst –case estimate

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis.  Identifying Tasks in a Work Breakdown Structure o Estimating Task Duration

• Example: a project manager estimate that a file conversion task could be completed in as few as 20 days or could take as many as 34 days,but most likely will require 24 days. Calculate the expected task duration. SOLUTION

(20+(4*24)+34) = 25 6

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis.  Identifying Tasks in a Work Breakdown Structure

o Factors Affecting Duration • • • •

Project size and scope Human resources Experience with similar project constraints

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis. Step 2: Identify Tasks Pattern  Task in a work breakdown structure that arranged in a logical sequence.  Main type of Task Patterns o Dependent Tasks- when task must be completed one after another o Multiple successor tasks- when several tasks can start at the same time i. Concurrent task ii. Predecessor task iii. Successor task o Multiple Predecessor Tasks- a task requires two or more prior tasks to be completed before it can start

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis. Step 2: Identify Tasks Pattern  PERT/M Charts PERT/M Tasks  Task box  Task ID  Task name  Task Duration  Start Day/Date  Finish Day/Date

Gather Prelim Investigation Report Mon / Dec 28’ 2015 Mon / Jan 4’ 2016

1.3

1.3 1 week

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis.

1.3.3 Describe work breakdown structures, task patterns, and critical path analysis. Step 3: Calculate the Critical Path  A series of task if delayed, would affect the completion date of the overall project o If any task along the critical path falls behind schedule, the entire project is delayed o A critical path includes all tasks that are vital to the project schedule o If necessary, a project manager can reassign resources to keep the project on schedule o Slack time –amount of time that the task could be late without pushing back the completion date of the entire project.

A PERT/M Example with Five Tasks

1.3.4 Create a work breakdown structure.

 WBS Benefit : o Reduce the complexity o Scheduling and handling facilities o Cost Estimation o Cost Budgeting o Risk management planning o Identification of activities (Activity Definition).

1.3.5 Explain techniques for estimating task completion times and costs.  The project manager must keep track of tasks and progress of team , compare actual progress with the project plan, the completion of project milestones, and set standards and ensure that they are followed  Monitoring and Control Techniques o Structured walkthrough - review the work of other systems analyst, programmers review the work of other programmers as a form of peer review o Called design reviews, code reviews, or testing reviews

 Maintaining a Schedule o Maintaining a project schedule can be a challenging task o The better the original plan, the easier it will be to control the project o If enough milestones and frequent checkpoints exist, problems will be detected rapidly o Project managers often spend most of their time tracking the tasks along the critical path

1.3.6 Describe various scheduling tools, including Gantt charts and PERT/M charts.